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β-Aminoisobutyric Acid Induces Browning of White Fat and Hepatic β-Oxidation and Is Inversely Correlated with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors
Open accessAbstract
The transcriptional coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) regulates metabolic genes in skeletal muscle and contributes to the response of muscle to exercise. Muscle PGC-1α transgenic expression and exercise both increase the expression of thermogenic genes within white adipose. How the PGC-1α-mediated response to exercise in muscle conveys signals to other tissues remains incompletely defined. We employed a metabolomic approach to examine metabolites secreted from myocytes with forced expression of PGC-1α, and identified β-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) as a small molecule myokine. BAIBA increases the expression of brown adipocyte-specific genes in white adipocytes and β-oxidation in hepatocytes both in vitro and in vivo through a PPARα-mediated mechanism, induces a brown adipose-like phenotype in human pluripotent stem cells, and improves glucose homeostasis in mice. In humans, plasma BAIBA concentrations are increased with exercise and inversely associated with metabolic risk factors. BAIBA may thus contribute to exercise-induced protection from metabolic diseases.
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“β-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) are natural metabolites of thymine and valine secreted primarily by myocytes during the practice of physical exercise (Roberts et al., 2014).”
From Physical Exercise-Induced Myokines and Muscle-Adipose Tissue Crosstalk: A Review of Current Knowledge and the Implications for Health and Metabolic Diseases (2018) · cites this paper as Roberts et al., 2014
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The increase of PGC1α observed during physical exercise results in a concomitant increase in BAIBA serum levels.”
From Physical Exercise-Induced Myokines and Muscle-Adipose Tissue Crosstalk: A Review of Current Knowledge and the Implications for Health and Metabolic Diseases (2018) · cites this paper as Roberts et al., 2014
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For example, β‐aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a novel exercise‐induced muscle factor, attenuates insulin resistance, improves glucose tolerance, and promotes the browning of white adipose tissue (WAT) and hepatic β‐oxidation (Roberts et al, 2014; Jung et al, 2015).”
From Exercise‐induced α‐ketoglutaric acid stimulates muscle hypertrophy and fat loss through OXGR1‐dependent adrenal activation (2020) · cites this paper as Roberts et al, 2014
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“two studies have reported increased circulating levels of BAIBA following aerobic exercise, e.g., cycling for 1 h at 40% maximal power output [106] or after 20 weeks of 30–50 min cycling sessions at 55–75% VO2 max [104] in healthy young men.”
From The Role of Exercise in the Interplay between Myokines, Hepatokines, Osteokines, Adipokines, and Modulation of Inflammation for Energy Substrate Redistribution and Fat Mass Loss: A Review (2020) · cites this paper as [104]
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In the citing paper
“The myokines irisin [57] and BAIBA [104] have been described to directly induce WAT “browning” both in vitro and in vivo, by upregulating genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, FAO, oxidative phosphorylation, and thermogenesis (1).”
From The Role of Exercise in the Interplay between Myokines, Hepatokines, Osteokines, Adipokines, and Modulation of Inflammation for Energy Substrate Redistribution and Fat Mass Loss: A Review (2020) · cites this paper as [104]
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“Fat mass loss associated with increased total energy expenditure was also observed [104].”
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“A trend toward a negative correlation between BAIBA and BMI [104] was shown, while another study reported no increase [107].”
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
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“which is known to upregulate the WAT browning myokines FNDC5-irisin [57], METRNL [274], and BAIBA [104].”
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“For instance, BAIBA [104] and FGF21 [160] have been shown to increase hepatic β-oxidation (6)”
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“in addition to demonstrating that physical exercise increases its production by the body.”
From Physical Exercise-Induced Myokines and Muscle-Adipose Tissue Crosstalk: A Review of Current Knowledge and the Implications for Health and Metabolic Diseases (2018) · cites this paper as Roberts et al., 2014
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In the same study, in vitro, when BAIBA was cultivated with primary cells from subcutaneous adipose tissue (scAT), there was an up regulation of brown and beige adipocytes marker, such as UCP1 and CIDEA.”
From Physical Exercise-Induced Myokines and Muscle-Adipose Tissue Crosstalk: A Review of Current Knowledge and the Implications for Health and Metabolic Diseases (2018) · cites this paper as Roberts et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“Thus, whether exercise can brown WAT in humans, especially through an irisin-mediated pathway, remains controversial55,83,84,90.”
From Exerkines in health, resilience and disease (2022) · cites this paper as [55]
In the citing paper
“In humans, circulating levels of β-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) increased with chronic training55 and inversely correlated with insulin resistance55.”
From Exerkines in health, resilience and disease (2022) · cites this paper as [55]
In the citing paper
“In wild-type mice, BAIBA treatment reduced insulin resistance and suppressed inflammation55.”
From Exerkines in health, resilience and disease (2022) · cites this paper as [55]
In the citing paper
“Using a mouse model, this paper demonstrated that a myokine, BAIBA, can ‘brown’ WAT to improve glucose homeostasis.”
From Exerkines in health, resilience and disease (2022) · cites this paper as [55]
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“is important due to the catabolism of thiamine, which is one of the key substances used for bodybuilding with direct participation in the protein synthesis from food required for normal growth of muscle tissue.(30)”
BackgroundLyssikatos, C., Wang, Z., Liu, Z., Warden, S. J., Brotto, M., & Bonewald, L. F. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-44249-6 · Cited by 15
“However, the positive association of L-BAIBA with BMI in females and fat mass in males came as a surprise as it has been shown that BAIBA induces conversion of white to brown fat 9 .”
Timofte, D. V., Tudor, R. C., Mocanu, V., & Labusca, L. S. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16234231 · Cited by 16
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“However, Roberts et al. showed robust data in humans documenting that BAIBA levels increased with physical activity and were inversely related with metabolic risk factors (Roberts et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMulti-Staged Regulation of Lipid Signaling Mediators during Myogenesis by COX-1/2 Pathways
Mo, C., Wang, Z., Bonewald, L. F., & Brotto, M. A. P. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20184326 · Cited by 15
“Factors released from muscles, such as β-aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a muscle metabolite, can act as endocrine factors to crosstalk with bone, adipose tissue, and other tissues or organs [29,30].”
BackgroundNierenberg, J. L., He, J., Li, C., Gu, X., Shi, M., Razavi, A. C., Mi, X., Li, S., Bazzano, L., Anderson, A. H., et al. (2019) · Metabolomics · doi:10.1007/s11306-019-1613-3 · Cited by 15
A Plasma Protein Network Regulates PM20D1 and N-Acyl Amino Acid Bioactivity
Kim, J. T., Jedrychowski, M. P., Wei, W., Fernández, D., Fischer, C. R., Banik, S. M., Spiegelman, B. M., & Long, J. Z. (2020) · Cell chemical biology · doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.04.009 · Cited by 15
“…examples include endocrine hormones such as steroids, biogenic amines, and the thyroid hormones, many new signaling molecules are still being uncovered (Cao et al., 2008; Grevengoed et al., 2019; Leiria et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2013; Lynes et al., 2017; Roberts et al., 2014; Yore et al., 2014).”
BackgroundTamura, K., Goto‐Inoue, N., Miyata, K., Furuichi, Y., FUJII, N. L., & Manabe, Y. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237095 · Cited by 15
Role of Distinct Fat Depots in Metabolic Regulation and Pathological Implications
Sahu, B., Tikoo, O., Pati, B., Senapati, U., & Bal, N. C. (2022) · Reviews of physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology · doi:10.1007/112_2022_73 · Cited by 15
Bian, X., Wang, Q., Wang, Y., & Lou, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2023.1305208 · Cited by 15
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“Therefore, the organic acid metabolites produced by skeletal muscle energy metabolism inhibit lipid deposition (Harmsen et al., 2022; Jin et al., 2024; Roberts et al., 2014), which can be added to food as metabolic regulators due to the good digestive stability (Chen et al., 2024).”
Exerkines: Potential regulators of diabetic cardiomyopathy
Yu, F., Zong, B., Tian, Z., Jia, D., & Wang, R. (2025) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2025.102816 · Cited by 15
Exercise-Induced Molecular Adaptations in Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases—Narrative Review
Fuentes-Barría, H., Aguilera-Eguía, R. A., Alarcón-Rivera, M., López-Soto, O., Aristizábal-Hoyos, J. A., Roco-Videla, Á., Caviedes-Olmos, M., & Rojas-Gómez, D. M. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms262412096 · Cited by 15
Molecular and cellular regulation of thermogenic fat
Wang, C., Wang, X., & Hu, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1215772 · Cited by 14
Review of the health-promoting effects of exercise and the involvement of myokines.
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“Results from the repeat chair stand, usual gait speed, and a static balance test (ability balance for 10 s with feet side-by-side, semi-tandem, and tandem) were used to calculate the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) score out of 12 23 .”
Zheng, H., Jiang, J., Huang, C., Wang, X., & Hu, P. (2024) · Food Chemistry X · doi:10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101116 · Cited by 14
“Previous studies have shown that β -amino- isobutyric acid may affect energy metabolism by regulating fatty acid oxidation and glucose metabolism (Roberts et al., 2014).”
ResultSakaguchi, M. (2024) · JMA Journal · doi:10.31662/jmaj.2023-0218 · Cited by 17
Bacterial reprogramming of tick metabolism impacts vector fitness and susceptibility to infection
Samaddar, S., Rolandelli, A., O’Neal, A. J., Laukaitis-Yousey, H. J., Marnin, L., Singh, N., Wang, X., Butler, L. R., Rangghran, P., Kitsou, C., et al. (2024) · Nature Microbiology · doi:10.1038/s41564-024-01756-0 · Cited by 14
“BAIBA is an intermediate of nucleotide and amino acid metabolism 42,43 .”
Starybrat, D., Jepson, R. E., Bristow, P., Peterson, S. M., Yerramilli, M., Yerramilli, M., Chang, Y., & Cortellini, S. (2022) · Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care · doi:10.1111/vec.13250 · Cited by 14
Identification of circulating metabolites associated with wooden breast and white striping
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“Another substrate of AGXT2 is -aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA), a myokine metabolite that increases in the circulation after exercise and is inversely associated with cardiometabolic disease risk (35, 41).”
BackgroundBiomarker-focused multi-drug combination therapy and repurposing trial in mdx mice
Ziemba, M., Barkhouse, M., Uaesoontrachoon, K., Giri, M., Hathout, Y., Dang, U. J., Gordish‐Dressman, H., Nagaraju, K., & Hoffman, E. P. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246507 · Cited by 14
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Molecular Aspects of Lifestyle and Environmental Effects in Patients With Diabetes
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Zhang, J., Gao, Y., & Yan, J. (2024) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo14020088 · Cited by 15
“BAIBA is a relatively novel small molecule identified in the supernatant of cultured myocytes [81], which preserves skeletal muscle via the amelioration of insulin resistance and inflammation, playing a strong regulatory role in the metabolic and immune homeostasis of muscle cells [37].”
BackgroundThermogenic Fat as a New Obesity Management Tool: From Pharmaceutical Reagents to Cell Therapies
Cheng, Y., Liang, S., Zhang, S., & Hui, X. H. (2024) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines12071474 · Cited by 13
“In mice and humans, circulating BAIBA levels rose following exercise, ameliorating thermogenesis in WAT via PPAR [69].”
BackgroundEssential roles of four-carbon backbone chemicals in the control of metabolism
Chriett, S. (2015) · World Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.4331/wjbc.v6.i3.223 · Cited by 13
Muscle PGC ‐1α in exercise and fasting‐induced regulation of hepatic UPR in mice
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Epigenetics, 1-Carbon Metabolism, and Homocysteine During Dysbiosis
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BAIBA Involves in Hypoxic Training Induced Browning of White Adipose Tissue in Obese Rats
Feng, J., Wang, X., Lu, Y., Yu, C., Wang, X., & Feng, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.882151 · Cited by 13
“β-Aminoisobutyric acid (BAIBA) has been reported recently as a newly discovered muscle factor (Kammoun and Febbraio, 2014; Roberts et al., 2014).”
BackgroundRETRACTED: Cardiovascular Disease and Exercise: From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Applications
Wang, B., Gan, L., Deng, Y., Zhu, S., Li, G., Nasser, M. I., Liu, N., & Zhu, P. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11247511 · Cited by 16
“In addition to the abovementioned proteins, some small-molecule metabolites (such as aminobutyric acid) and nucleic acids secreted by skeletal muscle may also be directly or indirectly involved in cardiovascular-protective effects (Figure 4) [79].”
BackgroundRetractedMcNally, B. D., Moran, A., Watt, N. T., Ashmore, T., Whitehead, A., Murfitt, S. A., Kearney, M. T., Cubbon, R. M., Murray, A. J., Griffin, J. L., et al. (2020) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db19-0892 · Cited by 13
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Metadata
- Authors
- Roberts, L. D., Boström, P., O’Sullivan, J. F., Schinzel, R. T., Lewis, G. D., Dejam, A., Lee, Y.-K., Palma, M. J., Calhoun, S., Georgiadi, A., Chen, M.-H., Ramachandran, V. S., Larson, M. G., Bouchard, C., Rankinen, T., Souza, A. L., Clish, C. B., Wang, T. J., Estall, J. L., Soukas, A. A., Cowan, C. A., Spiegelman, B. M., & Gerszten, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Broad Institute (US)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Boston University (US)
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center (US)
- Montreal Clinical Research Institute (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Gerszten, Robert E.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Cell Metabolism
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 96-108
- ISSN
- 1550-4131 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4017355
- OpenAlex
- W1974559463
- Cited by
- 643
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 62 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 59 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 21
- FWCI
- 32.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell Metabolism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (n01hc25195-41-0-1)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (N01‐HC25195, R01HL098280, N01-HC-025195, R01HL045670)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK095384, R01DK031405, DK-31405, R37DK031405, R01DK081572)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Adipose Tissue and Metabolism
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Metabolism, Diabetes, and Cancer
- Keywords
- beta-aminoisobutyric acid, myokines, PGC-1α, brown adipose tissue browning, white adipose tissue, hepatic beta-oxidation, PPARα, physical activity, glucose homeostasis, cardiometabolic risk factors
- MeSH terms
- Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma Coactivator 1-alpha, Aminoisobutyric Acids, Animals, Adipose Tissue, Brown, Cardiovascular Diseases, Cell Differentiation, Gene Expression Regulation, Glucose Tolerance Test, Humans, Liver, Metabolic Diseases, Organ Specificity, Oxidation-Reduction, Phenotype, Physical Conditioning, Animal, Risk Factors, Transcription Factors, Transcription, Genetic, Weight Gain, Exercise, PPAR alpha, Mice, Adipose Tissue, White, Adipocytes, Brown, Adipocytes, White, Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
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