An Evolutionary Upgrade of Cognitive Load Theory: Using the Human Motor System and Collaboration to Support the Learning of Complex Cognitive Tasks

Working memory limitations may have reduced significance when acquiring novel information that the human brain specifically has evolved to process, known as biologically primary information.

“Working memory limitations may have reduced significance when acquiring novel information that the human brain specifically has evolved to process, known as biologically primary information.”

• cites Geary 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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Working memory limitations may be critical only when acquiring novel information based on culturally important knowledge that we have not specifically evolved to acquire.

“Working memory limitations may be critical only when acquiring novel information based on culturally important knowledge that we have not specifically evolved to acquire.”

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Several cognitive load effects rely on biologically primary knowledge being used to facilitate the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge.

“In this article, we suggest that several cognitive load effects rely on biologically primary knowledge being used to facilitate the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge.”

Long-term memory is critically important to cognitive functioning, including problem solving.

“They indicate the critical importance of long-term memory to cognitive functioning, including problem solving.”

• cites de Groot 1965Not checked yet

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• cites Chiesi et al. 1979 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Egan and Schwartz 1979 sourceNot checked yet

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The capacity and duration limits of working memory are eliminated when working memory deals with familiar information organized in long-term memory rather than unfamiliar information from the environment.

“The capacity and duration limits of working memory are eliminated when working memory deals with familiar information organized in long-term memory rather than unfamiliar information from the environment.”

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The collective working memory effect reflects the finding that collaborating learners can gain from each other's working memory capacity during learning.

“The collective working memory effect reflects the finding that collaborating learners can gain from each other's working memory capacity during learning.”

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• cites Janssen et al. 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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The borrowing and reorganizing principle states that long-term memory is built primarily by observing and imitating other people, listening to what they say and reading what they write.

“This principle states that long-term memory is built primarily by observing and imitating other people, listening to what they say and reading what they write.”

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Face-to-face communication with others is a biologically primary task.

“Face-to-face communication with others is a biologically primary task.”

Working memory limitations are directly relevant to the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge because we have not evolved to know how secondary information should be processed.

“Working memory limitations are directly relevant to the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge because we have not evolved to know how secondary information should be processed.”

Humans are easily able to acquire huge amounts of biologically primary knowledge outside of educational contexts and without a discernible working memory load.

“Humans are easily able to acquire huge amounts of biologically primary knowledge outside of educational contexts and without a discernible working memory load.”

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• cites Kuhl 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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Empirical evidence comparing collaborative learning with individual learning reveals mixed results.

“Empirical evidence comparing collaborative learning with individual learning reveals mixed results.”

Biologically primary knowledge that makes minimal demands on working memory resources can be used to assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge that provides the content of most instruction and imposes a high working memory load.

“The major purpose of this paper has been to indicate that biologically primary knowledge that makes minimal demands on working memory resources can be used to assist in the acquisition of the biologically secondary knowledge that provides the content of most instruction and that imposes a high working memory load.”

• Also stated in: § Discussion and Conclusions · hedged

  “These independent research areas are all linked by the suggestion that biologically primary knowledge can be used to assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge.”

Collaborative learners can be considered as a single information processing system consisting of multiple limited working memories which can create a larger, more effective, collective working space.

“Collaborative learners can be considered as a single information processing system (Hinsz et al. 1997;Tindale and Kameda 2000;Ickes and Gonzalez 1994), consisting of multiple, limited working memories which can create a larger, more effective, collective working space.”

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• cites Tindale and Kameda 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Ickes and Gonzalez 1994 sourceNot checked yet

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Geary's evolutionary educational psychology may provide a theoretical foundation for designing cognitive load-based instructional design.

“Geary's evolutionary educational psychology with its distinction between biologically primary knowledge that we have evolved to acquire, and biologically secondary knowledge that has become culturally important but for many people frequently difficult to acquire, may provide us with a theoretical foundation for designing cognitive load-based instructional design.”

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A major function of instruction is for learners to acquire schemas.

“Based on these results, a major function of instruction is for learners to acquire schemas.”

The collective working memory effect provides the first example of the potential benefits of using biologically primary knowledge to assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary information that is the usual subject of instruction.

“The collective working memory effect provides the first example of the potential benefits of using biologically primary knowledge to assist in the acquisition of the biologically secondary information that is the usual subject of instruction.”

The borrowing and reorganizing principle suggests that information can be better obtained from an instructor, either in person or via instructional materials, rather than discovering information by oneself.

“The principle suggests that information can be better obtained from an instructor, either in person or via instructional materials, rather than discovering information by oneself.”

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The same cortical circuits that are involved in executing an action oneself also respond to observing someone else executing the same action.

“The human movement effect reflects the finding of neuroscience research that the same cortical circuits that are involved in executing an action oneself, also respond to observing someone else executing the same action.”

• Also stated in: § Human Movement Effect · plain

  “That is, the same cortical circuits that are involved in executing an action oneself, also respond to observing someone else executing that action.”

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When cognitive load was low, qualitative differences in constructed schemas materialized in higher learning efficiency for those who learned individually than for those who learned collaboratively.

“Consequently, when cognitive load was low, qualitative differences in constructed schemas materialized in higher learning efficiency for those who learned individually than for those who learned collaboratively.”

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Positive effects of collaborative learning are primarily found in highly structured and highly scripted learning environments in which learning processes were bound to strict rules.

“Positive effects are primarily found in highly structured and highly scripted learning environments in which learning processes were bound to strict rules (Dillenbourg 2002).”

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Social agency theory can be considered as another example of biologically primary knowledge assisting in the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge.

“In the present context, social agency theory can be considered as another example of biologically primary knowledge assisting in the acquisition of biologically secondary knowledge.”

The influence of transient information explains why in many cases, dynamic visualizations are no more effective than static visualizations.

“The influence of transient information also explains why in many cases, dynamic visualizations are no more effective than static visualizations.”

Biologically primary knowledge does not require the cognitive architecture outlined above (limited working memory).

“In that sense, biologically primary knowledge does not require the cognitive architecture outlined above.”

A potential advantage of group learning may only result if the working memory costs are largely biologically primary.

“Therefore, a potential advantage of group learning may only result if the working memory costs are largely biologically primary.”

For learning tasks imposing a high load, individual learners did not have sufficient processing capacity to successfully process the information.

“For learning tasks imposing a high load, individual learners did not have sufficient processing capacity to successfully process the information.”

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For collaborative learners, the benefits of distributing the cognitive load among each other proved to be higher than the costs of inter-individual integration and coordination of information.

“For collaborative learners, the benefits of distributing the cognitive load among each other proved to be higher than the costs of inter-individual integration and coordination of information.”

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The transient information effect provides a possible explanation why some forms of user-interactivity, segmentation, and attention cueing improve the effectiveness of animations.

“The transient information effect provides a possible explanation why some forms of user-interactivity (for an overview see, Wouters et al. 2007), segmentation (for an overview see, Spanjers et al. 2010), and attention cueing (for an overview see, De Koning et al. 2009) improve the effectiveness of animations.”

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• cites Spanjers et al. 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites De Koning et al. 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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The meta-analysis of Höffler and Leutner (2007) showed that superior learning (the largest effect size) was found when the animations were highly realistic and procedural-motor knowledge was involved, such as in learning to (dis)assemble a machine gun.

“In particular, the meta-analysis of Höffler and Leutner (2007) showed that superior learning (the largest effect size) was found when the animations were highly realistic and procedural-motor knowledge was involved, such as in learning to (dis)assemble a machine gun.”

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For learning tasks imposing a low cognitive load, learners working either individually or collaboratively had sufficient cognitive capacity to process all information by themselves.

“For learning tasks imposing a low cognitive load, learners working either individually or collaboratively had sufficient cognitive capacity to process all information by themselves.”

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The working memory costs of task-specific communication and coordination processes may be substantial, because they are biologically secondary.

“In contrast, the working memory costs of task-specific communication and coordination processes may be substantial, because they are biologically secondary.”

With statics, there is less need to hold information in working memory because in many research designs the sequence of static displays are continuously available without disappearing, and thus can easily be reviewed by the learner.

“With statics, there is less need to hold information in working memory because in many research designs the sequence of static displays are continuously available without disappearing, and thus can easily be reviewed by the learner.”

According to the current evolutionary perspective of cognitive load theory, humans have evolved to communicate with each other in order to obtain most of their information from each other.

“According to the current evolutionary perspective of cognitive load theory, humans have evolved to communicate with each other in order to obtain most of their information from each other.”

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• cites Sweller et al. 2011Not checked yet

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The working memory costs of general communication and coordination processes may be quite low because they are biologically primary.

“The working memory costs of general communication and coordination processes may be quite low because they are biologically primary.”

If the transient, animated information incorporates human movement that we have evolved to learn as a biologically primary skill, animations can be superior to static graphics.

“Nevertheless, if the transient, animated information incorporates human movement that we have evolved to learn as a biologically primary skill, animations can be superior to static graphics.”

The advantage of using the biologically primary knowledge associated with listening and looking simultaneously may disappear when dealing with lengthy, complex, spoken text.

“The advantage of using the biologically primary knowledge associated with listening and looking simultaneously may disappear when dealing with lengthy, complex, spoken text.”

Gesturing lowered cognitive load, regardless of whether objects were present or absent.

“The results revealed that gesturing lowered cognitive load, regardless of whether objects were present or absent.”

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Indirect evidence from studies using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation or brain imaging techniques suggests that the human motor system also has a mirroring capacity and is activated by observing motor actions made by others.

“Indirect evidence from studies using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation or brain imaging techniques suggests that the human motor system also has a mirroring capacity and is activated by observing motor actions made by others (for a review see Rizzolatti and Craighero 2004).”

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As far as we are aware, there are no data demonstrating that a general problem solving strategy such as means-ends analysis is teachable.

“As far as we are aware, there are no data demonstrating that a general problem solving strategy such as means-ends analysis (Newell and Simon 1972) is teachable.”

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Transient information can substantially increase working memory load when learning from animations.

“Transient information can substantially increase working memory load when learning from animations.”

That load can result in the superiority of static graphics.

“That load can result in the superiority of static graphics.”

One of their functions may be to reduce working memory load when dealing with biologically secondary knowledge such as learning mathematics and reading comprehension.

“One of their functions may be to reduce working memory load when dealing with biologically secondary knowledge such as learning mathematics and reading comprehension.”

The collective working memory effect indicates that our primary skill in communicating with others can be used to reduce individual cognitive load when acquiring secondary knowledge.

“The collective working memory effect indicates that our primary skill in communicating with others can be used to reduce individual cognitive load when acquiring secondary knowledge.”

Studies in the domains of mathematics and Piagetian conservation tasks have shown that the involvement of the more basic motor system in the form of gesturing reduces the working memory load during instruction.

“Studies in the domains of mathematics (Goldin-Meadow et al. 2001) and Piagetian conservation tasks (Ping and Goldin-Meadow 2010) have shown that the involvement of the more basic motor system in the form of gesturing reduces the working memory load during instruction.”

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• cites Ping and Goldin-Meadow 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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For 9-11-year-old children learning the mathematical concept of equivalence, instruction that included gestures made by the teacher was more effective than only receiving verbal instruction from the teacher.

“For example, Perry et al. (1995) showed that for 9-11-year-old children learning the mathematical concept of equivalence, instruction that included gestures made by the teacher was more effective than only receiving verbal instruction from the teacher.”

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Biologically primary skills are learned even though they cannot be explicitly taught.

“It needs to be emphasized that while we have suggested that biologically primary skills cannot be explicitly taught because we have evolved to acquire the relevant skills automatically, it does not follow that the skills are not learned, nor does it follow that we do not take actions to ensure they are learned.”

If, as part of primary knowledge, we have evolved to observe human movement and copy it, then asking learners to observe an animation in order to learn a motor skill may not place an excessive burden on working memory resources.

“If, as part of this primary knowledge, we have evolved to observe human movement and copy it, then asking learners to observe an animation in order to learn a motor skill may not place an excessive burden on working memory resources.”

Instructing children to make particular kinds of gestures while practicing solving mathematics problems themselves after having received explanations by the teacher advanced their learning compared with children who were instructed only to speak during practice.

“A study by Cook et al. (2008) revealed that instructing children to make particular kinds of gestures while practicing solving mathematics problems themselves after having received explanations by the teacher, advanced their learning compared with children who were instructed only to speak during practice.”

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Effective embodied representations do not require activity with real objects.

“The results regarding the computer manipulation condition, which were similar to those of the physical and imagine manipulation conditions, suggest that effective embodied representations do not require activity with real objects.”

Representing the hands is not necessary for learners to construct effective embodied representations from dynamic visualizations representing a typical manual skill, such as origami.

“This observation is consistent with the findings of studies into the human movement effect, which indicate that representing the hands is not necessary for learners to construct effective embodied representations from dynamic visualizations representing a typical manual skill, such as origami (Wong et al. 2009).”

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The human movement effect provides the second stream of evidence for the suggestion that the use of evolved, biologically primary knowledge can assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary information.

“The human movement effect provides the second stream of evidence for the suggestion that the use of evolved, biologically primary knowledge can assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary information.”

Observing an action performed by somebody else induces in an observer the tendency to perform an action that is related.

“Observing an action performed by somebody else induces in an observer the tendency to perform an action that is related (Katz 1960).”

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Learning by observing an instructor who verbally explains and gestures or by making gestures oneself while giving verbal explanations leads to the construction of higher-quality cognitive schemas than learning by observing or giving verbal explanations without gestures.

“These findings support the embodied cognition view that learning by observing an instructor who verbally explains and gestures or by making gestures oneself while giving verbal explanations leads to the construction of higher-quality cognitive schemas than learning by observing or giving verbal explanations without gestures.”

We certainly have not evolved to read about an object while looking at it because reading itself requires biologically secondary knowledge.

“We certainly have not evolved to read about an object while looking at it because reading itself requires biologically secondary knowledge.”

Shoval (2011) found that, compared with the conventionally taught control group, the experimental group using mindful movement in cooperative learning obtained better results.

“Shoval found that, compared with the conventionally taught control group, the experimental group using mindful movement in cooperative learning obtained better results.”

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Learning about biologically secondary knowledge, such as biological or mechanical systems, may require more working memory resources, because humans do not have the same biological (neural networks) advantages.

“In contrast, learning about biologically secondary knowledge, such as biological or mechanical systems, may require more working memory resources, because humans do not have the same biological (neural networks) advantages.”

When 9-year-old children were instructed to gesture while solving mathematics problems themselves, they learned more from a lesson by the teacher.

“Broaders et al. (2007) showed that when 9-year-old children were instructed to gesture while solving mathematics problems themselves, they learned more from a lesson by the teacher.”

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Spoken information must be sufficiently low in content and complexity (element interactivity) to enable it to be processed and held in working memory.

“Spoken information must be sufficiently low in content and complexity (element interactivity) to enable it to be processed and held in working memory.”

The associated reduction of working memory load can be argued to free resources that can then be used to construct higher-quality cognitive schemas in long-term memory.

“The associated reduction of working memory load can be argued to free resources that can then be used to construct higher-quality cognitive schemas in longterm memory.”

Cognitive processes are grounded in perception and action, rather than being reducible to the manipulation of abstract symbols.

“Embodied cognition assumes that cognitive processes are grounded in perception and action, rather than being reducible to the manipulation of abstract symbols (Barsalou 1999).”

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The Höffler and Leutner findings are not consistent with the cognitive load theory transient information explanation, as some of the studies used a non-interactive, video-based recording that clearly contained transient information, yet the animation was superior to an equivalent static presentation.

“On the surface, the Höffler and Leutner findings are not consistent with the cognitive load theory transient information explanation, as some of the studies used a non-interactive, video-based recording that clearly contained transient information, yet the animation was superior to an equivalent static presentation.”

The construction of higher-quality cognitive schemas from verbal explanations with gestures has been shown to be less cognitively demanding than the construction of lower quality cognitive schemas from verbal explanations only.

“Most importantly, the construction of higherquality cognitive schemas from verbal explanations with gestures has been shown to be less cognitively demanding than the construction of lower quality cognitive schemas from verbal explanations only.”

The results of the different studies revealed substantially better comprehension performance in the manipulation conditions than in the control conditions.

“The results of the different studies revealed substantially better comprehension performance in the manipulation conditions than in the control conditions.”

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Gesture is represented in cortical areas that differ from those that handle verbal materials.

“This explanation is consistent with results from cognitive neuroscientific research showing that gesture is represented in cortical areas that differ from those that handle verbal materials (e.g., Decety et al. 1997).”

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Using biologically primary information to assist in the acquisition of other biologically primary information may yield few benefits compared with the use of biologically primary information to assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary information.

“Using biologically primary information to assist in the acquisition of other biologically primary information, may yield few benefits compared with the use of biologically primary information to assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary information.”

Previously acquired general, biologically primary skills may be galvanized to assist in the acquisition of biologically secondary skills, including the subject matter taught in instructional contexts and studied in cognitive load theory based research.

“It may be possible to galvanize general, primary skills to facilitate the acquisition of the secondary skills that are characteristically the subject matter of cognitive load theory based research and that are taught in instructional contexts.”

• Also stated in: § Discussion and Conclusions · hedged

  “Previously acquired general skills, biologically primary in nature, may be of assistance when acquiring biologically secondary skills.”

We take the actions that ensure biologically primary skills are learned automatically and unconsciously because we have evolved to take such actions.

“We take such actions automatically and unconsciously because we have evolved to take such actions.”

The actions we take to ensure that biologically primary skills are learned are themselves biologically primary.

“Our argument is that the actions we take to ensure that biologically primary skills are learned are themselves biologically primary.”

Acquiring biologically secondary knowledge relies heavily on biologically primary knowledge.

“Acquiring that secondary knowledge relies heavily on primary knowledge.”

The communication of generic information may be too important to be anything other than biologically primary.

“The communication of generic information may be too important to be anything other than biologically primary.”

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One-trial learning - generalizing knowledge from a single demonstration to all situations perceived as similar - is a biologically primary skill.

“Similarly, when shown how to open a milk carton once, we will generalize that knowledge to all situations that we perceive to be similar.Again, such “one-trial-learning” is biologically primary.”