Activity and Imagined Activity Can Enhance Young Children's Reading Comprehension.
Abstract
The Indexical Hypothesis suggests a new method for enhancing children’s reading comprehension. Young readers may not consistently “index, ” or map, words to the objects the words represent. Consequently, these readers fail to derive much meaning from the text. The instructional method involves manipulating toy objects referred to in the text (e.g., a barn, a tractor, a horse, in a text about a farm) to simulate the actions described in the text. Correctly manipulating the objects forces indexing and facilitates the derivation of meaning. Both actual manipulation and imagined manipulation resulted in markedly better (compared with rereading) memory for and comprehension of the text material, thereby lending strong support to the Indexical Hypothesis. Can young children’s reading comprehension be enhanced? Are there potent reading-comprehension strategies that can be identified
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The results of the different studies revealed substantially better comprehension performance in the manipulation conditions than in the control conditions.
“The results of the different studies revealed substantially better comprehension performance in the manipulation conditions than in the control conditions.”
From An Evolutionary Upgrade of Cognitive Load Theory: Using the Human Motor System and Collaboration to Support the Learning of Complex Cognitive Tasks (2012) · cites this paper as Glenberg et al. 2004
Cites
The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception
Bornstein, M. H., & Gibson, J. J. (1980) · The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism · doi:10.2307/429816 · Cited by 22,935 · see citing works
Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things
Lakoff, G. P. (1987) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226471013.001.0001 · Cited by 13,358 · see citing works
A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing.
Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.82.6.407 · Cited by 8,141 · see citing works
Searle, J. R. (1980) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00005756 · Cited by 6,954 · see citing works
Barsalou, L. W. (1999) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x99002149 · Cited by 6,887 · see citing works
Landauer, T. K., & Dumais, S. T. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.211 · Cited by 6,282 · see citing works
Putnam, H. (1981) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511625398 · Cited by 5,626 · see citing works
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation
(2021) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(21)x0002-3 · Cited by 5,081 · see citing works
Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory.
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0020071 · Cited by 4,540 · see citing works
The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction-integration model.
Kintsch, W. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.163 · Cited by 4,388 · see citing works
Harnad, S. (1990) · Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena · doi:10.1016/0167-2789(90)90087-6 · Cited by 4,235 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The foremost is the symbol grounding problem (Glenberg & Robertson, 2000; Harnad, 1990; Searle, 1980), namely, that AAA symbols cannot by themselves generate meaning; instead, the symbols must be grounded.”
Kronenfeld, D. B. (1978) · Language · doi:10.2307/412850 · Cited by 3,094 · see citing works
Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding: An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures
Hunt, E. B., Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1979) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421499 · Cited by 2,967 · see citing works
Glenberg, A. M., & Kaschak, M. P. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196313 · Cited by 2,361 · see citing works
Self-citationLevels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing
Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(77)80016-9 · Cited by 2,296 · see citing works
Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind
Gibbs, R. W., & Lakoff, G. P. (1989) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422958 · Cited by 1,886 · see citing works
Glenberg, A. M. (1997) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x97000010 · Cited by 1,726 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Principles of Multimedia Learning: The Role of Modality and Contiguity
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (1999) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.358 · Cited by 1,564 · see citing works
Newell, A. (1980) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0402_2 · Cited by 1,458 · see citing works
Pulvermüller, F. (1999) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x9900182x · Cited by 1,284 · see citing works
How Psychological Science Informs the Teaching of Reading
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1111/1529-1006.00004 · Cited by 955 · see citing works
Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543071003393 · Cited by 936 · see citing works
Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests–Revised
Greenberg, D. (2014) · Encyclopedia of Special Education · doi:10.1002/9781118660584.ese2562 · Cited by 934 · see citing works
The children's test of nonword repetition: A test of phonological working memory
Gathercole, S. E., Willis, C., Baddeley, A., & Emslie, H. C. (1994) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658219408258940 · Cited by 898 · see citing works
The Effect of Implied Orientation Derived from Verbal Context on Picture Recognition
Stanfield, R. A., & Zwaan, R. A. (2001) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00326 · Cited by 836 · see citing works
Symbol Grounding and Meaning: A Comparison of High-Dimensional and Embodied Theories of Meaning
Glenberg, A. M., & Robertson, D. A. (2000) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2000.2714 · Cited by 755 · see citing works
Self-citationMental models contribute to foregrounding during text comprehension
Glenberg, A. M., Meyer, M. P., & LINDEM, K. J. (1987) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/0749-596x(87)90063-5 · Cited by 744 · see citing works
Self-citationSystematic thinking fostered by illustrations in scientific text.
Mayer, R. E. (1989) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.81.2.240 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
A distributed memory model of semantic priming.
Masson, M. E. J. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.1.3 · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Verifying Different-Modality Properties for Concepts Produces Switching Costs
Pecher, D., Zeelenberg, R., & Barsalou, L. W. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01429 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Kaschak, M. P., & Glenberg, A. M. (2000) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2000.2705 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Self-citationModelling Parsing Constraints with High-dimensional Context Space
Lund, C. B. A. K. (1997) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/016909697386844 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
The children's test of non-word repetition
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. (1996) · Bristol Research (University of Bristol) · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Circumscribing Referential Domains during Real-Time Language Comprehension
Chambers, C. G., Tanenhaus, M. K., Eberhard, K. M., Filip, H., & Carlson, G. N. (2002) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2001.2832 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Drawing construction as a strategy for learning from text.
Meter, P. V. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.129 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Koda, K. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139524841.014 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Four Cognitive Principles of Learning-Strategy Instruction
Levin, J. (1986) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.1986.9653021 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Body's Contribution to Language
Glenberg, A. M., & Kaschak, M. P. (2003) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)01012-0 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citationActivity in motor areas while remembering action events
Nilsson, L., Nyberg, L. H., Klingberg, T., et al. (2000) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200007140-00027 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Masur, E. F. (1997) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000997003115 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Perceptual simulation in conceptual tasks
Barsalou, L. W., Solomon, K. O., & Wu, L. (1999) · Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science. Series 4, Current issues in linguistic theory · doi:10.1075/cilt.152.15bar · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Pictures and young children's learning from oral prose.
Lesgold, A. M., Levin, J. R., Joseph Shimron, C., & Guttmann, J. (1975) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.67.5.636 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Self-citationTHE ROLE OF OVERT ACTIVITY IN CHILDREN'S IMAGERY PRODUCTION
Wolff, P., & Levin, J. R. (1972) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1972.tb01122.x · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationGhatala, E. S., Levin, J. R., Pressley, M. G., & Goodwin, D. (1986) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-0965(86)90052-4 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Role of Overt Activity in Children's Imagery Production
Wolff, P., & Levin, J. R. (1972) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1127554 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationTraining Cognitive Strategy-Monitoring in Children
Ghatala, E. S., Levin, J. R., Pressley, M. G., et al. (1985) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312022002199 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning dialogue with and without movement
Noice, H., & Noice, T. (2001) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196411 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
A,B seeing: The role of constructive processes in children's comprehension monitoring.
Rubman, C. N., & Waters, H. S. (2000) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.503 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Memory organization of action events and its relationship to memory performance.
Koriat, A., & Pearlman-Avnion, S. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.3.435 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Pictures and Young children's Prose Learning: A Supplementary Report
Lesgold, A. M., Good, H. D., & Levin, J. R. (1977) · Journal of Reading Behavior · doi:10.1080/10862967709547240 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationMotor Activity, Anticipated Motor Activity, and Young Children's Associative Learning
Bender, B. G., & Levin, J. R. (1976) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1128822 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationTraining imagery production in young children through motor involvement.
Varley, W. H., Levin, J. R., Severson, R. A., et al. (1974) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0036277 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationTraining Cognitive Strategy-Monitoring in Children
Ghatala, E. S., Levin, J. R., Pressley, M. G., et al. (1985) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1162840 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Eight Ways to Promote Generative Learning
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9348-9 · Cited by 832 · see citing works
Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.04.010 · Cited by 500 · see citing works
Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9179-2 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
Jang, S., Vitale, J. M., Jyung, R. W., & Black, J. B. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.009 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Enactive Metaphors: Learning Through Full-Body Engagement
Gallagher, S., & Lindgren, R. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9327-1 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Making Sense of Generative Learning
Fiorella, L. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09769-7 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
- Authors
- Glenberg, A. M., Gutierrez, T., Levin, J. R., Japuntich, S., & Kaschak, M. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2004-09
- Volume
- 96
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 424-436
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2129995169
- Semantic Scholar
- b697dbda4d4ce7de76fa868eb595325e49b59994
- Cited by
- 401
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 11.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- reading comprehension, young children, word-object mapping, text comprehension strategies, memory for text, re-reading, early literacy instruction
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
