Ultrasonication-induced modifications in functional, thermal, and structural properties of chickpea flour under different time and temperature conditions

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Chickpea flour typically contains 20-25% protein, mainly globulins (legumin and vicilin) and glutelins, along with 52-71% starch, dietary fibre (6-15%), and essential micronutrients.

“Chickpea flour typically contains 20 -25% protein, mainly globulins (legumin and vicilin) and glutelins, along with 52 -71% starch, dietary fibre (6 -15%), and essential micronutrients”

• cites Kaur & Prasad, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Noordraven et al., 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable in our copy) says chickpea flours contain amino acids and describes chickpeas as a source of vitamins and minerals. It also discusses starch in chickpea flour. It does not give the claimed protein, starch, or fibre percentages, or identify globulins, legumin, vicilin, or glutelins as the main proteins. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Ultrasound induces acoustic cavitation, generating localised high temperatures and pressures that can alter the physicochemical and structural properties of starch and proteins.

“Ultrasound induces acoustic cavitation, generating localised high temperatures and pressures that can alter the physicochemical and structural properties of starch and proteins”

• cites Xiong et al., 2024 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ultrasound processing has attracted increasing attention as a green, non-thermal technology suitable for modifying biopolymers in flours and starches.

“Among them, ultrasound processing has attracted increasing attention as a green, non-thermal technology suitable for modifying biopolymers in flours and starches”

• cites Farrokhi et al., 2025bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Vela et al., 2024 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes growing interest in green physical methods, including ultrasound, for modifying starches and flours; the Conclusions call ultrasound a clean modification technology. But Section 2 says cavitation can have a strong thermal effect, and Section 5 says cooling may be needed. The unqualified description of the process as non-thermal is therefore not supported. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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The protein matrix in legume flours may limit swelling behaviour compared to pure starch, potentially explaining the observed decline even under high-temperature ultrasonication treatments.

“Moreover, the protein matrix in legume flours may limit swelling behaviour compared to pure starch (Zhang et al., 2025), potentially explaining the observed decline even under high-temperature ultrasonication treatments.”

• cites Zhang et al., 2025 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.2 (page unavailable) says proteins and other non-starch components can resist water absorption and swelling, and reports increased swelling after proteins are removed from rice starch. This supports the proposed mechanism, but the paper does not establish the specific comparison between legume flours and pure starch. The high-temperature ultrasonication explanation is the citing authors’ interpretation, not a finding attributed to Zhang et al. (LLM, conf=0.81)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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These interactions, together with the formation of shorter chains, have greater potential for hydrogen bonding with water molecules, promoting the formation of a stronger and more cohesive elastic network.

“These interactions, together with the formation of shorter chains have greater potential for hydrogen bonding with water molecules, promoting the formation of a stronger and more cohesive elastic network (Monroy et al., 2018).”

• cites Monroy et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.3 (Rheological behavior) proposes that ultrasound-induced short polymer chains reassociate through hydrogen bonds to form a more elastic three-dimensional network, and reports stronger gels under more severe treatment. Section 3.1 (Microstructural analysis) separately describes water molecules hydrogen-bonding with free hydroxyl groups. The paper does not say that shorter chains bond more readily with water or that bonding with water produces the stronger network. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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The weaker gel networks from prolonged or high-temperature ultrasonication may translate into softer doughs, less cohesive pasta, or reduced firmness in plant-based fish and meat analogues.

“which may translate into softer doughs, less cohesive pasta, or reduced firmness in plant-based fish and meat ana­ logues (Gurbuz et al., 2025).”

• cites Gurbuz et al., 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Results sections on fish and meat analogs report that processing or formulation choices can reduce hardness, supporting the possibility of less-firm analogs. They do not link reduced firmness to weaker gels caused by prolonged or high-temperature ultrasonication, and the retrieved passages do not address softer doughs or less-cohesive pasta (pages not available). (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Rheological and functional properties measured in chickpea flour systems predict performance in final food products such as dough, pasta, and meat analogues.

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WAC of chickpea flour was significantly reduced in all ultrasound-treated samples except S-10min and S-50°, which remained statistically comparable to the control (S-0).

“As shown in Fig. 1, WAC of chickpea flour was significantly reduced in all ultrasound-treated samples except S-10min and S-50 ◦ , which remained statistically comparable to the control (S-0).”

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The highest WSI was observed in S-50° (10.71 ± 0.58%), followed by S-40° (10.05 ± 0.80%) and S-20min (10.01 ± 0.41%).

“Ultrasonication significantly increased WSI in all treated samples compared to the control, with the highest solubility observed in S-50 ◦ (10.71 ± 0.58%), followed by S-40 ◦ (10.05 ± 0.80%) and S-20min (10.01 ± 0.41%).”

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Short, moderate ultrasound treatments enhanced water solubility of chickpea flour dispersions while maintaining overall crystalline order and gel-like behaviour (G′ > G′′), despite changes in hydration-related properties.

“Short, moderate treatments enhanced water solubility while maintaining overall crystalline order and gel-like behaviour ( G ʹ > G ʹ ʹ ) , despite changes in hydration-related properties.”

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Structural analyses confirmed that crystalline domains were largely preserved, with transient increases in crystallinity at 20 min that coincided with stronger viscoelastic behaviour.

“Structural analyses confirmed that crystalline domains were largely preserved, with transient increases in crystallinity at 20 min that coincided with stronger viscoelastic behaviour.”

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Although the increase in ΔHgel for the S-25min sample was statistically significant, the difference was not substantial compared to the other samples.

“Although the increase in Δ Hgel for the S-25min sample was statistically significant, the difference was not substantial compared to the other samples.”

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Short-to-moderate ultrasonication treatments preserve elasticity while enhancing solubility.

“short-to-moderate treatments that preserve elasticity while enhancing solubility”

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Extended ultrasonication (e.g., 40 min) resulted in a slight numerical decrease in crystallinity (38.6 ± 3.3%), suggesting limited disruption of the ordered regions, but again without statistical significance.

“Extended ultrasonication (e.g., 40 min) resulted in a slight numerical decrease in crystallinity (38.6 ± 3.3%), suggesting limited disruption of the ordered regions, but again without statistical significance.”

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Along PC2, samples such as S-30 min, S-40 min, S-30°, and S-40° showed moderately positive scores, corresponding to partially organised structures with increased thermal resistance.

“Along PC2, samples such as S-30 min, S-40 min, S-30 ◦ , and S-40 ◦ , showed moderately positive scores, corresponding to partially organised structures with increased thermal resistance.”

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Samples treated for 40 min and those processed at 50°C exhibited the highest damaged starch contents (both 0.7 ± 0.0), showing a significant increase compared to the untreated control (0.4 ± 0.1%).

“Samples treated for 40 min and those processed at 50 ◦ C exhibited the highest damaged starch contents (both samples with a value of 0.7 ± 0.0), showing a significant increase compared to the untreated control (0.4 ± 0.1%).”

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No new absorption peaks appeared in the FTIR spectra of treated samples, confirming that the chemical structure of chickpea flour remained unchanged.

“No new absorption peaks appeared in the FTIR spectra of treated samples, confirming that the chemical structure of chickpea flour remained unchanged.”

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The effect of temperature during ultrasonication (30-50°C) was less pronounced; crystallinity values under these conditions remained statistically similar to those of the control, indicating that thermal input alone does not significantly affect structural order.

“The effect of temperature during ultrasonication (30 -50 ◦ C) was less pronounced. Crystallinity values under these conditions remained statistically similar to those of the control, indicating that thermal input alone does not significantly affect structural order.”

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Prolonged or high-temperature treatments (≥40 min or 50°C) maximised solubility and reduced viscosity.

“prolonged or high-temperature treatments ( ≥ 40 min or 50 ◦ C) maximised solubility and reduced viscosity”

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The swelling power (SP) of chickpea flour decreased progressively with more intense ultrasound conditions, with the lowest swelling measured in the S-50° sample (6.10 ± 0.06 g/g).

“Unlike WSI, the SP of chickpea flour tended to decrease progressively with more intense ultrasound conditions, with the lowest swelling measured in S-50 ◦ (6.10 ± 0.06 g/g).”

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The positive side of PC1 was dominated by (D90-D10)/D50, supported by G', WAI, SP, and amylose content, indicating stronger gel networks and greater particle heterogeneity.

“The posi­ tive side of PC1 was dominated by ( D90 D10 ) / D50, supported by G ʹ , WAI, SP, and amylose content, indicating stronger gel networks and greater particle heterogeneity.”

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All samples exhibited shear thinning behaviour, with complex viscosity (η*) decreasing as frequency increased.

“The complex viscosity ( η *) results (Fig. 4-c) demonstrate shear thinning behaviour for all samples, as η * decreased with increasing frequency”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Amylopectin content showed an inverse numerical trend relative to amylose across the treatments.

“Similarly, amylopectin content showed an inverse numerical trend relative to amylose across the treatments.”

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Prolonged ultrasonication time and elevated treatment temperatures led to a noticeable reduction in both the elastic modulus G'0 and viscous modulus G''0 compared to the control, with only slight differences observed between the two conditions.

“However, prolonged ultrasonication time and elevated treatment temperatures also led to a noticeable reduction in both the elastic modulus G ʹ 0 ) and viscous modulus (G ʹ ʹ 0 ) compared to the control, with only slight differences observed between the two conditions.”

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Extended ultrasonication (20-40 min) or moderate heating (30-40°C) reduced water absorption, induced partial particle reaggregation, and weakened gel strength.

“extended ultrasonication (20 -40 min) or moderate heating (30 -40 ◦ C) reduced water absorption, induced partial particle reaggregation, and weakened gel strength.”

May combine two claims.

Ultrasonication at 50°C maximised solubility but also caused pronounced particle aggregation, lower swelling power, and reduced viscosity, consistent with cavitation damage and thermal effects.

“Ultrasonication at 50 ◦ C maximised solubility but also caused pronounced particle aggregation, lower swelling power, and reduced viscosity, consistent with cavitation damage and thermal ef­ fects.”

May combine two claims.

These effects become more pronounced with increasing ultrasonication intensity and temperature, particularly in S-40min and S-50° samples, where granules appear more fragmented and aggregated.

“These effects become more pronounced with increasing ultrasonication intensity and temperature, particularly in S-40min and S-50 ◦ samples, where granules appear more fragmented and aggregated.”

May combine two claims.

Changes in amylose content were inconsistent across treatments and did not follow a clear linear trend with ultrasonication time or temperature.

“However, in this study, the changes in amylose content were inconsistent across treatments and did not follow a clear linear trend with ultrasonication time or temperature (Table 2).”

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S-50° was clearly separated on the negative side of PC1, driven by higher solubility, increased particle size, and reduced gel strength, reflecting extensive structural disruption.

“In contrast, S-50 ◦ was clearly separated on the negative side of PC1, driven by higher solubility, increased particle size, and reduced gel strength, reflecting extensive structural disruption.”

May combine two claims.

Longer treatments disrupted molecular order and reduced elasticity, although all ultrasonicated flours maintained gel-like properties.

“In contrast, longer treatments disrupted molecular order and reduced elasticity, although all ultrasonicated flours maintained gel-like properties.”

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The enthalpy values of gelatinisation for all samples were negative, confirming the endothermic nature of the gelatinisation process.

“The enthalpy values of gelatinisation for all samples were negative, confirming the endothermic nature of the gelatinisation process.”

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In our study, the To gel of chickpea flour treated for 40 min increased, indicating a delayed onset of gelatinisation.

“However, in our study, the To gel of chickpea flour treated for 40 min increased, indicating a delayed onset of gelatinisation.”

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Short treatments (10 min) promoted particle fragmentation, maintained water absorption capacity, and preserved gel elasticity, without markedly altering solubility.

“Short treatments (10 min) promoted particle fragmentation, maintained water absorption capacity, and preserved gel elasticity, without markedly altering solubility”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The spectra exhibited characteristic peaks at ~3280 cm-1 (O-H stretching), ~2926 cm-1 (C-H stretching of aliphatic groups, linked to the presence of lipids), and ~1634 cm-1 (bending vibration of H-O-H), consistent with typical moisture- and carbohydrate-associated vibrational modes.

“In addition to the starch-specific region, the spectra (Fig. 3) also exhibited characteristic peaks at ~3280 cm 1 (O -H stretching), ~2926 cm 1 (C -H stretching of aliphatic groups, linked to the presence of lipids), and ~1634 cm 1 (bending vibration of H -O -H), consistent with typical moisture- and carbohydrate-associated vibrational modes (Garcia-Valle et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2025).”

• cites Garcia-Valle et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kumar et al., 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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The control (S-0) and short ultrasonication (S-10 min) were positioned toward the positive side of PC1, indicating preserved structural integrity and strong viscoelastic behaviour.

“As shown in Fig. 5, the control (S-0) and short ultrasonication (S10 min) were positioned toward the positive side of PC1, indicating preserved structural integrity and strong viscoelastic behaviour.”

May combine two claims.

Ultrasound processing effectively modulated the functional, structural, and rheological properties of chickpea flour, with the outcome strongly dependent on treatment duration and temperature.

“This study demonstrated that ultrasound processing effectively modulated the functional, structural, and rheological properties of chickpea flour, with the outcome strongly dependent on treatment duration and temperature.”

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The sample treated for 20 min showed a numerically higher crystallinity value (48.6 ± 4.1%), but this increase was not statistically significant compared to the control (44.3 ± 2.2%).

“Although the sample treated for 20 min showed a numerically higher crystallinity value (48.6 ± 4.1%), this increase was not statistically significant compared to the control (44.3 ± 2.2%).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Chickpea flour has been increasingly incorporated into gluten-free and plant-based products due to its multifunctional properties.

“Chickpea flour has been increasingly incorporated into gluten-free and plant-based products, including bakery goods, extruded snacks, plant-based beverages, and even restructured meat analogues, due to its multifunctional properties”

• cites Augustin et al., 2024 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Vinod et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Legumin and vicilin act as gel-forming hydrocolloids contributing to network formation.

“while legumin and vicilin act as gel-forming hydrocolloids contributing to network formation”

• cites Chang et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ultrasound can cleave amylose chains, which are more prone to disruption than amylopectin, thereby releasing soluble polymers into the aqueous phase.

“Ultrasound can cleave amylose chains, which are more prone to disruption than amylopectin, thereby releasing soluble polymers into the aqueous phase”

• cites Amini et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Falsafi et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kaur & Gill, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Chickpea amino acid profile is rich in lysine and arginine but limited in sulphur-containing amino acids, and complements cereal proteins.

“Its amino acid profile, rich in lysine and arginine but limited in sulphur-containing amino acids, complements cereal proteins”

• cites Kaur & Prasad, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Ultrasound parameters can be tuned to favour two distinct functional profiles in chickpea flour: enhanced solubility and dispersibility under shorter treatments, or modified viscoelastic networks under prolonged conditions.

“These findings indicate that ultrasound parameters can be tuned to favour two distinct functional profiles in chickpea flour: enhanced solubility and dispersibility under shorter treatments, or modified viscoelastic networks under prolonged conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The extent of solubility enhancement in flours is known to be variable depending on composition and ultrasound conditions.

“although the extent of solubility enhancement in flours is known to be variable depending on composition and ultrasound conditions.”

• cites Vela, Villanueva, Nathia-Neves, & Ronda, 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhu & Li, 2019 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

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Ultrasound is a non-thermal, clean-label technology for tailoring the structure-function relationships of hydrocolloids in chickpea flour, enabling targeted modulation of solubility, viscoelastic properties, and structural organisation for plant-based product development.

“This mechanistic understanding positions ultrasound as a non-thermal, clean-label technology for tailoring the structure-function relationships of hydrocolloids in chickpea flour, enabling targeted modulation of solubility, viscoelastic properties, and structural organisation for plant-based product development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Warren et al. (2016) noted a weak correlation between infrared spectral ratios and actual crystallinity, suggesting a more complex relationship between FTIR data and structural order in starch.

“Warren et al. (2016) noted a weak correlation between infrared spectral ratios and actual crystallinity, suggesting a more complex relationship between FTIR data and structural order in starch.”

• cites Warren et al. (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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The PCA reveals a clear treatment-dependent shift from structured, elastic systems toward increasingly solubilised and disordered matrices, with ultrasonication time and temperature governing the balance between fragmentation, aggregation, and functional performance.

“The PCA reveals a clear treatment-dependent shift from structured, elastic systems toward increasingly solubilised and disordered matrices, with ultrasonication time and temperature governing the balance be­ tween fragmentation, aggregation, and functional performance.”

May combine two claims.

A slight increase in onset temperature or enthalpy indicates a marginal enhancement in the thermal stability of starch granules, which could delay gelatinisation during cooking or extrusion and, in turn, influence textural development in dough- or pasta-based systems.

“A slight increase in onset temperature or enthalpy indicates a marginal enhancement in the thermal stability of starch granules, which could delay gelatinisation during cooking or extrusion and, in turn, influence textural development in dough -or pasta-based systems.”

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The decrease in 1022/995 ratio may indicate a reduction in amorphous content or changes in the hydration state of starch helices, indicating weakening of short-range order caused by cavitation.

“However, a slight numerical decrease in the 1022/995 ratio of the treated samples compared to the control was observed, which may indicate a reduction in amorphous content or changes in the hydration state of starch helices, indicating the weakening of short-range order caused by cavitation (Hu et al., 2019; Monroy et al., 2018).”

• cites Hu et al., 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Monroy et al., 2018 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

These findings contribute to the understanding of how ultrasound modulates the structure-function relationships of starch-protein hydrocolloid systems, with implications beyond chickpea flour for the broader field of plant-based food hydrocolloids.

“These findings contribute to the understanding of how ultrasound modulates the structure-function relationships of starch-protein hydrocolloid sys­ tems, with implications beyond chickpea flour for the broader field of plant-based food hydrocolloids.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Similar results were reported for millet starch treated with ultrasonication at high temperatures and dual frequencies.

“Similar results were reported for millet starch treated with ultrasonication at high temperatures and dual frequencies (Hu et al., 2019).”

• cites Hu et al., 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Ultrasonication under these conditions may have induced mild molecular reordering, resulting in a slightly more compact or semi-crystalline internal structure, thereby marginally enhancing granule stability.

“Ultrasonication under these conditions may have induced mild molecular reordering, resulting in a slightly more compact or semi-crystalline internal structure, thereby marginally enhancing granule stability.”

May combine two claims.

Shorter amylose fragments may bind iodine less effectively, leading to underestimation, while debranched amylopectin chains may be overestimated as amylose.

“Shorter amylose fragments may bind iodine less effectively, leading to underestimation, while debranched amylopectin chains may be overestimated as amylose.”

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Higher variability observed in short ultrasonication treatments (e.g., S-10 min) may reflect heterogeneous structural modification of starch granules, where partially disrupted and intact granules coexist, leading to inconsistent iodine-binding responses.

“In particular, the higher variability observed in short ultrasonication treatments (e.g., S-10 min) may reflect heterogeneous structural modification of starch granules, where partially disrupted and intact granules coexist, leading to inconsistent iodine-binding responses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The discrepancy in gelatinisation responses across studies can be attributed to variations in ultrasound parameters (e.g., duration, amplitude, temperature), starch type, and composition.

“The discrepancy in gelatinisation responses across studies can be attributed to variations in ultrasound parameters (e.g., duration, amplitude, temperature), starch type, and composition (Zhu, 2015).”

• cites Zhu, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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Short-to-moderate ultrasonication (10-20 min at 20-30°C) provided the most balanced functional profile: higher solubility, moderate swelling, preserved water absorption, and stable gel strength.

“short-to-moderate ultrasonication (10 -20 min at 20 -30 ◦ C) provided the most balanced functional profile: higher solubility, moderate swelling, preserved water absorption, and stable gel strength.”

May combine two claims.

Ultrasound-induced cavitation leads to partial disruption of starch granules and simultaneous unfolding of proteins, promoting new starch-protein interactions.

“Ultrasound-induced cavitation leads to partial disruption of starch granules and simultaneous unfolding of proteins, promoting new starch -protein interactions.”

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Results can be sensitive to non-starch components in flours and show limited repeatability.

“Moreover, the results can be sensitive to non-starch components in flours and show limited repeatability (Gibson et al., 1997).”

• cites Gibson et al., 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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This structural disruption likely increases surface area and facilitates the release of soluble components, which may explain the higher water solubility and modified hydration behaviour observed in ultrasonicated samples.

“This structural disruption likely increases surface area and facilitates the release of soluble components, which may explain the higher water solubility and modified hydration behaviour observed in ultrasonicated samples.”

May combine two claims.

The ultrasound temperature used-applied sub-gelatinisation temperature-did not significantly disrupt the crystalline order of the starch granules and primarily caused degradation of the amorphous regions, which are rich in amylose.

“For most ultrasonicated samples, gelatinisation temperatures remained unchanged, suggesting that the ultrasound temperature used -applied sub-gelatinisation temperature -did not significantly disrupt the crystalline order of the starch granules and primarily caused degradation of the amorphous regions, which are rich in amylose (Amini et al., 2015).”

• cites Amini et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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These molecular modifications reduce water-binding capacity (WAC) due to loss of intact granular structure, while increasing solubility through the release of low-molecular-weight fractions.

“These molecular modifications reduce water-binding capacity (WAC) due to loss of intact granular structure, while increasing solubility through the release of low-molecular-weight fractions.”

May combine two claims.

The transient increase in crystallinity observed for the 20 min ultrasonicated sample suggests that enhanced molecular ordering temporarily reinforces the gel network and contributes to stronger elastic properties.

“The transient increase in crystallinity observed for the 20 min ultrasonicated sample (XRD - sec­ tion 2.3.5) aligns with this behaviour, suggesting that enhanced mo­ lecular ordering temporarily reinforces the gel network and contributes to stronger elastic properties.”

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The SEM observations support the particle size results, indicating that cavitation-induced mechanical forces disrupt granule integrity and promote aggregation of damaged particles.

“These observations support the particle size results, indicating that cavitation-induced mechanical forces disrupt granule integrity and promote the aggregation of damaged particles.”

May combine two claims.

Cavitation may generate hydroxyl and hydrogen radicals from water dissociation, which can induce scission of starch molecular chains and compromise granule integrity.

“In addition, cavitation may generate hydroxyl (-OH) and hydrogen (-H) radicals from water dissociation, which can induce scission of starch molecular chains and compromise granule integrity (Wang et al., 2020).”

• cites Wang et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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This integrated interpretation highlights the central role of starch-protein interactions in governing the functional behaviour of ultrasound-treated chickpea flour and provides a basis for selecting processing conditions tailored to specific applications.

“This integrated interpretation highlights the central role of starch -­ protein interactions in governing the functional behaviour of ultrasound-treated chickpea flour and provides a basis for selecting processing conditions tailored to specific applications.”

May combine two claims.

Surface damage and increased molecular mobility promote aggregation, contributing to the observed increase in particle size under more intense conditions.

“At the same time, surface damage and increased molecular mobility promote aggregation, contributing to the observed increase in particle size under more intense conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

PCA provides a simplified representation of the dataset and should be interpreted primarily in terms of general trends rather than exhaustive relationships.

“This in­ dicates that PCA provides a simplified representation of the dataset and should be interpreted primarily in terms of general trends rather than exhaustive relationships.”

May combine two claims.

The similar trend in other ultrasonicated samples suggests moderate structural modification without significant disruption.

“suggesting moderate structural modification without significant disruption.”

May combine two claims.

These combined structural changes directly influence the viscoelastic properties, where moderate disruption enhances network formation through molecular interactions, while excessive fragmentation weakens the gel structure.

“These combined structural changes directly influence the viscoelastic properties, where moderate disruption enhances network formation through molecular interactions, while excessive fragmentation weakens the gel structure.”