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Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales
Open accessAbstract
Research and clinical observations suggest that during times of pandemic many people exhibit stress- or anxiety-related responses that include fear of becoming infected, fear of coming into contact with possibly contaminated objects or surfaces, fear of foreigners who might be carrying infection (i.e., disease-related xenophobia), fear of the socio-economic consequences of the pandemic, compulsive checking and reassurance-seeking regarding possible pandemic-related threats, and traumatic stress symptoms about the pandemic (e.g., nightmares, intrusive thoughts). We developed the 36-item COVID Stress Scales (CSS) to measure these features, as they pertain to COVID-19. The CSS were developed to better understand and assess COVID-19-related distress. The scales were intentionally designed so they could be readily adapted for future pandemics. The CSS were developed and initially validated in population-representative samples from Canada (N = 3479) and the United States (N = 3375). A stable 5-factor solution was identified, corresponding to scales assessing COVID-related stress and anxiety symptoms: (1) Danger and contamination fears, (2) fears about economic consequences, (3) xenophobia, (4) compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and (5) traumatic stress symptoms about COVID-19. The scales performed well on various indices of reliability and validity. The scales were intercorrelated, providing evidence of a COVID Stress Syndrome. The scales offer promise as tools for better understanding the distress associated with COVID-19 and for identifying people in need of mental health services.
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“Since the onset of the pandemic, an important number of studies have been interested in its psychological impacts and showed increases in rates of mental health disturbances.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Moreover, faced with the increase in the prevalence of psychological distress [3,4], it seems useful to invest in the development of prevention tools.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“While the CSS is a novel measure, initial data suggest that the CSS is reliable (Cronbach’s α for individual subscales ranged from 0.86–0.95) and valid [97].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“While an initial five-factor structure was proposed, subsequent studies have proposed a six-factor solution [97,98].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“As per Taylor et al. (2020), anxiety mainly related to worries about catching the virus and socio‐economic concerns.”
From Living through lockdown: A qualitative exploration of individuals' experiences in the UK. (2022) · cites this paper as Taylor et al. (2020)
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“The CSS is a 36-item measure of COVID distress.”
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Pre-infection global psychosocial status on SARS CoV-2 disease outcomePreprint
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BackgroundTHE POLISH ADAPTATION AND FURTHER VALIDATION OF THE COVID STRESS SCALES (CSS)
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Hypothesis: Relationship between Coronavirus Disease-19 and Periodontal status
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“COVID-19 also causes anxiety about socio-economic factors, compulsive checking, and reassurance regarding possible threats related to pandemics and traumatic stress symptoms (Taylor et al., 2020), leading to increased negative emotions and risk sensitivity (Li et al., 2020).”
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“Questionnaire and data collection The questionnaire of this quantitative study included two parts, namely, demographic data and the 5-Likert Thai version of the COVID stress scale (T-CSS).(18) The COVID stress scale was translated and modified to Thai.”
Methodالخوف من الإصابة بفيروس كورونا وعلاقته بتقدير الذات والصحة النفسية لدى طلبة الجامعات في قطاع غزة
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Psychometric Properties of the Questionnaire Covid-19 Stress on the Romanian Community Sample
Miclea, B., Nicoară, R.-D., & Coman, H. G. (2022) · BRAIN BROAD RESEARCH IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE · doi:10.18662/brain/13.4/379
“Covid-19 Stress Scales (CSS) (Taylor et al., 2020) is originally composed by 36 affirmations, distributed in six scales: (a) danger scale contain 6 items.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialLinking COVID-19 and Firearm Violence
Sakae, C., Rockne, W. Y., Donnelly, M., Clark, S., Swentek, L., & Nahmias, J. T. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98711-4_153-1
Would Accounting for COVID-19 Pandemic Make Cities Much Smarter?
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TURKISH VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF COVID-19 STRESS SCALES (CSS)
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“COVID-19 Stress Scales (CSS) was developed by Taylor et al. (2020) and consists of six subscales and 36 items and Scale of Fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19S) was developed by Ahorsu et al. (2020) and consisting of one-dimensional scale with seven items are available in the literature [26,27].”
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“The COVID-19 Stress Scale was used to measure stress and anxiety [30].”
MethodPsychological Capital In Communities Affected by The COVID-19 Pandemic
Rahmawati, P. M., Suhari, S., Astuti, A., & Musviro, M. (2022) · NurseLine Journal · doi:10.19184/nlj.v7i2.27483
Development and validation of the COVID-19 Impact Scale in AustraliaPreprint
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COVID-19 Stress and Burnout: An Investigation of Healthcare Providers
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Kostihova, A. (2022) · Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research · doi:10.26717/bjstr.2022.47.007549
Relationship Between Interpretation Bias, Racial or Ethnic Identity, and COVID-19 AnxietyPreprint
Schmitt, T. N., Larrazabal, M. A., Eberle, J. W., Boukhechba, M., Barnes, L. E., & Teachman, B. A. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hxc9j
Abedi, P., Rahmanian, V., Ranjbar, A., Jamali, S., & Ahmadi, Z. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2728823/v1
Study of Perceived Stress and Pandemic Effects Among University Students
Kovács-Berta, R., Dudok, F., & Dombi, E. (2022) · Évkönyv · doi:10.18485/uns_evkonyv.2022.5
Salmani, B., Hasani, J., & Zanjani, Z. (2022) · Journal of Research in Behavioural Sciences · doi:10.52547/rbs.20.1.98
Mental Health Challenges of Higher Education Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Akhil, M. P. (2023) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-7221-7.ch006
Construct Validity of Posttraumatic Growth Inventory in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Meilinawati, A. (2023) · JP3I (Jurnal Pengukuran Psikologi dan Pendidikan Indonesia) · doi:10.15408/jp3i.v12i1.24365
STRESSTING PROPOSAL APPLICATION FOR STRESS DIAGNOSIS
Rueda, K. H., Vargas, M. P. M., Velasco, L. E. D. L., & Pérez, S. E. H. (2023) · Scientific Journal of Applied Social and Clinical Science · doi:10.22533/at.ed.21631223070610
FEAR OR PASSION? PREDICTORS OF TRAVEL BEHAVIOR AND FOREIGN TRAVEL INTENTIONS IN PANDEMIC CONDITIONS
VERN’, S., Krečar, I. M., & Kolega, M. (2023) · Ekonomska misao i praksa · doi:10.17818/emip/2023/1.9
Effects of COVID-19 Stress on Healing Behavior in Residential Spaces
Oh, J., & Park, H. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13070524
“(2020) developed a COVID stress scale after evaluating 3479 Canadians and 3375 Americans based on the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 [36], the Short Health Anxiety Inventory [37], the Obsessive Compulsive Inventory—Revised [38], the Xenophobia Scale [39], and the Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability Scale Short Form [40…”
BackgroundMental Health and Psychological Well-Being of the Elderly During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Russia
Vasileva, A. V., Syunyakov, T., Sorokin, M. Y., Kulygina, M. A., Karavaeva, T., Karpenko, O., Yakovlev, A., Zubova, E., Smirnova, D. A., & Andrushchenko, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-1467-8_16
Kulesza, W. M., & Doliński, D. (2023) · SpringerBriefs in psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34706-1_5
Arteta-Ladrido, G. (2023) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2023.116035
Abed, N., Shahyad, S., & Saadat, S. H. (2023) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.5812/ijpbs-118403
“The factors extracted from the COVID-19-related stressors questionnaire differ from similar surveys developed in other countries (7, 10, 11).”
MethodAswad, E., & Gaynor, K. (2023) · Medical Research Archives · doi:10.18103/mra.v11i7.1.3669
Metadata
- Authors
- Taylor, S., Landry, C. A., Paluszek, M. M., Fergus, T. A., McKay, D., & Asmundson, G. J. G.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- University of Regina (CA)
- Baylor University (US)
- Fordham University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Asmundson, Gordon J.G.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-05
- Volume
- 72
- Pages
- 102232
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7198206
- OpenAlex
- W3020973746
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 219 · 2022: 270 · 2021: 344 · 2020: 123
- FWCI
- 95.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Fordham Research Commons (Fordham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- COVID Stress Scale, COVID-19 pandemic, pandemic stress, anxiety, fear of contamination, economic impact of pandemic, compulsive checking, reassurance seeking, traumatic stress symptoms, scale development, scale validation, mental health screening
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Canada, Fear, Female, Health Services Needs and Demand, Humans, Male, Mental Health Services, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Psychometrics, Stress, Psychological, Reproducibility of Results, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics
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