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Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales
Open accessAbstract
Research and clinical observations suggest that during times of pandemic many people exhibit stress- or anxiety-related responses that include fear of becoming infected, fear of coming into contact with possibly contaminated objects or surfaces, fear of foreigners who might be carrying infection (i.e., disease-related xenophobia), fear of the socio-economic consequences of the pandemic, compulsive checking and reassurance-seeking regarding possible pandemic-related threats, and traumatic stress symptoms about the pandemic (e.g., nightmares, intrusive thoughts). We developed the 36-item COVID Stress Scales (CSS) to measure these features, as they pertain to COVID-19. The CSS were developed to better understand and assess COVID-19-related distress. The scales were intentionally designed so they could be readily adapted for future pandemics. The CSS were developed and initially validated in population-representative samples from Canada (N = 3479) and the United States (N = 3375). A stable 5-factor solution was identified, corresponding to scales assessing COVID-related stress and anxiety symptoms: (1) Danger and contamination fears, (2) fears about economic consequences, (3) xenophobia, (4) compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and (5) traumatic stress symptoms about COVID-19. The scales performed well on various indices of reliability and validity. The scales were intercorrelated, providing evidence of a COVID Stress Syndrome. The scales offer promise as tools for better understanding the distress associated with COVID-19 and for identifying people in need of mental health services.
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“Since the onset of the pandemic, an important number of studies have been interested in its psychological impacts and showed increases in rates of mental health disturbances.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Moreover, faced with the increase in the prevalence of psychological distress [3,4], it seems useful to invest in the development of prevention tools.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“While the CSS is a novel measure, initial data suggest that the CSS is reliable (Cronbach’s α for individual subscales ranged from 0.86–0.95) and valid [97].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“While an initial five-factor structure was proposed, subsequent studies have proposed a six-factor solution [97,98].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“As per Taylor et al. (2020), anxiety mainly related to worries about catching the virus and socio‐economic concerns.”
From Living through lockdown: A qualitative exploration of individuals' experiences in the UK. (2022) · cites this paper as Taylor et al. (2020)
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“The CSS is a 36-item measure of COVID distress.”
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The Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Development and Initial Validation
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“To date, there has been little empirical attention devoted to this issue; indeed, while several measures of COVID-19-related fears have recently emerged (e.g., Ahorsu et al., 2020) , they tend to be unidimensional (i.e., focused on general fear aspects of and are based on limited psychometric evaluation.”
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Items 401–500 of 999
PANDEMIC COVID-19 AS A MULTIFACTORIALTRAUMATIC SITUATION
Быховец, Ю. В., & Коган-Лернер, Л. Б. (2020) · Институт психологии Российской академии наук Социальная и экономическая психология · doi:10.38098/ipran.sep.2020.18.2.010 · Cited by 12
Meesala, N., Harsha, G. V. D., Kandikatla, P., Karteekvarma, P., Nadakuditi, S. R., & Kakaraparthi, S. (2020) · Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care · doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1244_20 · Cited by 12
Phobic COVID-19 Disorder Scale: Development, Dimensionality, and Item-Structure Test
Nasir, M., Adil, M., & Kumar, M. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00544-9 · Cited by 12
de Colombia, F. D. E. U. N., Carreño-Moreno, S., Chaparro-Díaz, L., Cifuentes-Tinjaca, C. D., Portilla, F. E. P., & Patiño, E. X. V. (2021) · doi:10.15649/cuidarte.2044 · Cited by 12
Pandemic, Perceived Risk, and Cognitive Dissonance as Antecedents to Need for Cognitive Closure
Sachdeva, R. (2022) · International Journal of Service Science Management Engineering and Technology · doi:10.4018/ijssmet.298676 · Cited by 12
“COVID-19 Pandemic Scale: The COVID-19 pandemic scale items are generated through items adapted from works of Ahorsu et al., 2020; Bitan et al., 2020; Mohammadi et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020 and focus group.”
MethodThibault, T., Thompson, K., Keough, M. T., Krank, M. D., Conrod, P., Moore, M., & Stewart, S. H. (2022) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3175 · Cited by 12
Factor structure of the 10‐item CES‐D Scale among patients with persistent COVID‐19
Ramírez‐Vélez, R., Olabarrieta‐Landa, L., Rivera, D., & Izquierdo, M. (2022) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.28236 · Cited by 12
Kennedy, B., Sims-Rhodes, N., Avendano, J., Mathew, J., O'Brien, K. P., Chek, C. J. W., & Sass, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Happiness and Health · doi:10.47602/johah.v4i1.54 · Cited by 16
Blackwell, C. K., Sherlock, P., Jackson, K., Hofheimer, J. A., Cella, D. F., Algermissen, M., Alshawabkeh, A. N., Avalos, L. A., Bastain, T., Blair, C., et al. (2023) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0001211 · Cited by 13
García-Reyna, B., Castillo-García, G. D., Barbosa‐Camacho, F. J., Cervantes‐Cardona, G. A., Cervantes‐Pérez, E., Estrada, I. E., Brancaccio‐Pérez, I. V., Silva-González, G., Fuentes‐Orozco, C., Pintor‐Belmontes, K. J., et al. (2021) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2021.1936297 · Cited by 12
Seah, Y. Z. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13168689 · Cited by 12
“This should be remedied in future research through, for example, a self-reported questionnaire such as the COVID Stress Scales [67].”
Psychometric Properties and Factor Structure of the German Version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale
Fatfouta, R., & Rogoza, R. (2021) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228211062360 · Cited by 14
“Thus, for clinicians and healthcare providers, there is a need to have a valid and reliable instrument to assess individual differences in fear of COVID-19 (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundLambe, L. J., Yunus, F. M., Moore, M., Keough, M. T., Thompson, K., Krank, M. D., Conrod, P., & Stewart, S. H. (2022) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2022.2152726 · Cited by 11
“The shortened version included the 3 top loading items from each factor in Taylor et al. (2020) except danger/contamination, which used the top 6 loading items (Thibault et al., 2022).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOmar, A. A. H., Gul, I., & Ali, I. (2024) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2024.2309699 · Cited by 11
Badillo-Sánchez, N., Gómez-Salgado, J. C., Allande‐Cussó, R., Yıldırım, M., López‐López, D., Goniewicz, K., Prieto-Callejero, B., & Fagundo-Rivera, J. (2025) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000040797 · Cited by 15
“…in 2022 , [ 2,3,5,6, 11, 14, For the assessment of psychological distress, the following validated scales were used: COVID-19 Stress Scale (CSS), [45] COVID-19 Student Stress Questionnaire (CSSQ), [46] DASS-21, [47] 12-Item General Health Questionnaire, [48] Impact of Event Scale-Revised, [49]…”
Determinants of worry using the SARS‐CoV‐19 worry (CoV‐Wo) scale among United States residents
Dayton, L., Schneider, K. E., Strickland, J. C., & Latkin, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22577 · Cited by 11
“In addition to health concerns, COVID‐19 has generated uncertainty across economic domains (Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundArpacı, İ., Seong, M., & Karataş, K. (2021) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-021-00113-y · Cited by 11
Casjens, S., Taeger, D., Brüning, T., & Behrens, T. (2022) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000002595 · Cited by 12
“The “COVID-19 danger and contamination” subscale of the recently introduced COVID stress scale was used to assess COVID-19–related stress.(18) The 12 items of the subscale were rated on a five-point Likert scale from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely), leading to a score range from 0 to 48 points.”
BackgroundMethodGir, E., Baptista, C. J., Reis, R. K., Menegüeti, M. G., Pillon, S. C., & Silva, A. C. D. O. E. (2022) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2022.09.004 · Cited by 11
Watson, K. H., Coiro, M. J., Ciriegio, A. E., Dakkak, A. N., Jones, M. T., Reisman, J., Kujawa, A., & Compas, B. E. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12598 · Cited by 11
“…the type, severity, and frequency of COVID-19-related stressors has focused primarily on adults or college students (Kujawa, Green, Compas, Dickey, & Pegg, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020) with limited research investigating the experiences of children and adolescents in the U.S. throughout the pandemic.”
BackgroundJimenez, W. P., Katz, I. M., & Liguori, E. A. (2022) · Occupational Health Science · doi:10.1007/s41542-022-00131-x · Cited by 12
Nandal, N., Tanwar, R., & Pathan, A. K. (2023) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2023.01.075 · Cited by 11
“The preliminary study shows that there are very common symptoms of depression, and anxiety [23] and reported stress in the range of 8% to 16% which are quite common reactions to the pandemic of COVID-19 [19].”
(Re)Framing Resilience: A Trajectory-Based Study Involving Emerging Religious/Spiritual Leaders
Jankowski, P. J., Sandage, S. J., & Wang, D. (2023) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel14030333 · Cited by 13
Delgado-Gallegos, J. L., Avilés-Rodríguez, G. J., Padilla-Rivas, G. R., Cosío-León, M. D. L. Á., Franco-Villareal, H., Hipólito, J. I. N., Sanchez, L., Zúñiga-Violante, E., Islas, J. F., & Romo-Cárdenas, G. S. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13030513 · Cited by 11
“However, all scales showed statistical significance when the test was applied to the accumulated value for each of these scales, as seen in Table 3; thus, validating, the use of the ACSS in a population [1,54].”
MethodRogers, A. H., Garey, L., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2021) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2021.1874504 · Cited by 12
“Recent studies have identified that COVID-19 specific health concerns comprise a COVID stress syndrome that may present unique challenges for mental health treatment during and following the pandemic (Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundAshraf, F., Zareen, G., Nusrat, A., Arif, A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647821 · Cited by 11
“Researchers suggest that during a pandemic, individuals can exhibit anxiety and fear-related distress, along with accompanying frequent and persistent thoughts, about getting infected or contaminated (Taylor et al., 2020) even over the mild condition that may mimic symptoms of the common cold, leading to compulsive ch…”
BackgroundA Breathing Sonification System to Reduce Stress During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Kerrebroeck, B. V., & Maes, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.623110 · Cited by 14
Tabler, J., Schmitz, R. M., Charak, R., & Dickinson, E. (2021) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-021-00470-0 · Cited by 13
Kantor, B. N., & Kantor, J. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043758 · Cited by 11
Zou, X., Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2022) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2022.2154258 · Cited by 12
“To measure COVID-19 related stress, we used three dimensions from the COVID Stress Scale (Taylor et al., 2020, pp. 1 = not at all, 5 = extremely): Danger (e.g., “I am worried about catching the virus”; M = 2.41, SD = 0.98, α = .91), Xenophobia (e.g., “I am worried that foreigners are spreading the…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA Cross-Cultural Study of Distress during COVID-19 Pandemic: Some Protective and Risk Factors
Kosić, A., Ignjatović, T. D., & Petrović, N. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147261 · Cited by 11
Datta, S., & Mukherjee, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Global Women s Health · doi:10.3389/fgwh.2023.1132768 · Cited by 11
“Frontiers in Global Women’s Health 05 Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale (GAD-7) (52); Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21), Lovibond and Lovibond (53), most studies used customized questions to assess the Covid-19”
BackgroundShetu, S. N. (2025) · Future Business Journal · doi:10.1186/s43093-025-00448-3 · Cited by 23
“In line with Popa, Soto-Acosta, and Martinez-Conesa Taylor et al. [139] Behavioral Intention to use (BIU) BIU1: I intend to continue using mobile shopping apps in the future BIU2: I will always try to use mobile shopping apps in my daily life BIU3: I plan to continue to use the mobile shopping apps…”
The Moderating Role of Caregiving on Fear of COVID-19 and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms
Carballo, J. L., Coloma‐Carmona, A., Arteseros-Bañón, S., & Pérez‐Jover, V. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18116125 · Cited by 11
Wang, Z., Yeung, P. L., & Gao, X. (2021) · Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100022 · Cited by 10
Xia, L., Lian, Q., Yang, H., & Wu, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.962304 · Cited by 12
“The initial psychometric evaluation of the CSS demonstrated good reliability, convergent and discriminant validity (10).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialLeung, C. H. (2022) · Asia Pacific Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/02188791.2022.2114425 · Cited by 11
“Recent research based on data from representative samples in Canada and the United States in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic suggested that pandemic-related distress may comprise a network of five interconnected symptom categories – danger and contamination fears, socioeconomic concerns, xenophobia, traumati…”
BackgroundControllability is key: Goal pursuit during COVID‐19 and insights for theories of self‐regulation
McClure, J. H. C., & Cole, S. N. (2022) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12920 · Cited by 10
Behera, R. K., Bala, P. K., Panigrahi, P. K., & Rana, N. P. (2022) · Benchmarking An International Journal · doi:10.1108/bij-01-2022-0025 · Cited by 10
A confirmatory factor analysis of a cognitive model of COVID-19 related anxiety and depression
Delz, L. A. K., Gaynor, K., O'Connor, R., Schmieder, L., & Somers, E. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103861 · Cited by 11
“Studies have argued for the appropriateness of understanding the population-level impact through the conceptualisations of health anxiety, depression, OCD, and trauma (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020; Dennis, Radnitz, & Wheaton, 2021; Karatzias et al., 2020).”
Covid-19 Demographics from a Tertiary Care Center: Does It Depreciate Quality-of-Life?
Revathishree, K., Sudarsan, S. S., Indu, R., & Srinivasan, K. (2020) · Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery · doi:10.1007/s12070-020-02144-w · Cited by 10
“Pakpour et al. study [24] have also used other QOL tools like Fear of Covid-19 Questionnaire (FCQ) [19] and COVID Stress Scales (CSS) [28] along with FCV-19S.”
MethodThe Role of Stress During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Future Career Anxiety of Final-Year Students
Rahmadani, R., & Sahrani, R. (2021) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research/Advances in social science, education and humanities research · doi:10.2991/assehr.k.210805.154 · Cited by 10
“In a pandemic situation like this, anxiety-related stress responses include fear of being infected, fear of coming into contact with objects or surfaces that may be contaminated, and fear of strangers who may carry disease infections [18].”
BackgroundSauer, K. S., Schmidt, A., Jungmann, S. M., Bailer, J., & Witthöft, M. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110687 · Cited by 13
“The detrimental association between health anxiety and COVID-19 related mental distress, which was observed in the general population [10 – 15], should be especially pronounced in people with pathological health anxiety [24].”
So, S. H., Zhu, C., Lincoln, T. M., Gaudiano, B. A., Kingston, J. L., Ellett, L., & Morris, E. M. J. (2022) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2022.01.045 · Cited by 11
Saez-Flores, E., Otto, A. K., Prinsloo, S., Natori, A., Wagner, R. W., Gomez, T. I., Ochoa, J. M., Tworoger, S. S., Ulrich, C. M., Hathaway, C. A., et al. (2023) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-023-03456-4 · Cited by 10
“Other, more expansive, measures of COVID-19 evaluate psychosocial distress, economic issues, and social disruption [31–37] or target specific populations (e.g., healthcare workers, students) [36, 37].”
BackgroundStudents' Anxiety during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Saudi Arabia
AL-Shahrani, A. M. (2021) · Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care · doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_46_21 · Cited by 9
“The results of this study corroborate with medical studies, and findings have shown that certain individuals experience fear and anxiety-related anxieties including fear of contamination, fear of interaction with possible infected items or structures, and fear of outsiders bearing pathogens (far more than the others).…”
BackgroundResultGüneş, S., & Bulut, B. P. (2022) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2021.2012110 · Cited by 16
“COVID-related stress includes fears of danger and contamination, fears about economic consequences, xenophobia, compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and traumatic stress symptoms (Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundLee, S.-B., Jeon, Y.-B., & Yoon, M. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13932-0 · Cited by 9
Back to Clinical Training during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Perspective of Nursing Students
Alcalá-Albert, G. J., Blas, E. G., Gómez‐Moreno, C., González-Morón, C., Sanz-Melero, A., Robledillo-Mesa, A. S., & Vélez, E. V. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192114242 · Cited by 9
“Specifically, nursing students in clinical settings are under additional stressors and new challenges presented by COVID-19, such as fear of becoming infected and infecting their close family members [16], rapid changes in clinical settings [17], uncertainty about their skills, and even concerns about continuing their…”
BackgroundSingh, S., & Kaurav, R. P. S. (2022) · Vision The Journal of Business Perspective · doi:10.1177/09722629221130831 · Cited by 10
Jungmann, S. M., Piefke, M., Nin, V., Asmundson, G. J. G., & Witthöft, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0279319 · Cited by 11
“In addition, positive associations were found between Covid Stress Syndrome (assessed by CSS) and anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, hygiene measures, and beliefs in conspiracy theories [15, 16].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialRiva, G., Lernia, D. D., Tuena, C., Bernardelli, L., Gutiérrez‐Maldonado, J., Ferrer‐García, M., Porras-García, B., Meyer, M. L., Shiban, Y., Castelnuovo, G., et al. (2023) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000001198 · Cited by 11
“the intervention, such as COVID stress-related variables (81).”
BackgroundD’Urso, G., Magliacano, A., Dell’Osso, B. M., Lamberti, H., Luciani, A., Mariniello, T. S., Pomes, M. V., Rifici, L. M., The COVID in OCD Study Group, Iasevoli, F., et al. (2023) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2416 · Cited by 9
“This result is in accordance with previous studies showing higher levels of emotional distress, anxiety, and depression symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic in the general population [17], as well as among patients with preexisting psychiatric disorders [18–20].”
ResultKhalaf, M. A., & Shehata, A. M. K. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01425-7 · Cited by 9
Majeed, N. M., Kasturiratna, K. T. A. S., Li, M. Y., Chia, J. L., Lua, V. Y. Q., & Hartanto, A. (2023) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909231208119 · Cited by 9
“The current study used fi ve items adapted from the COVID Stress Scales to measure COVID-19-related stress and anxiety symptoms on four factors: (1) danger and contamination, (2) xenophobia, (3) compulsive checking, and (4) traumatic stress symptoms.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPelletier, J., Houle, J., Goulet, M., Juster, R., Giguère, C., Bordet, J., Hénault, I., LESAGE, A. D., Benedictis, L. D., Denis, F., et al. (2020) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/22500 · Cited by 11
“However, similar to Taylor et al [82] who developed the COVID-19 Stress Scales, which we will use (see the Outcome Measures at Follow-up section), the whole intervention is intentionally designed to be readily adaptable to other (pandemic) situations.”
Keyan, D., Dawson, K. S., Azevado, S., Yadav, S., Tran, J., & Bryant, R. A. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10529-x · Cited by 9
“COVID-19 related concerns will be assessed using the COVID Stress Scales (CSS) that has been developed to index the extent to which an individual engages in worry about COVID-19 related issues [25].”
MethodDixon, L. J., Witcraft, S. M., & Schadegg, M. J. (2021) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2021.1923504 · Cited by 9
Kira, I. A., Rice, K. G., Ashby, J. S., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Ibraheem, A. B., & Aljakoub, J. (2022) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2022.2050067 · Cited by 8
“The current dominant line of research that tries to identify those most affected focuses on premorbid psychopathology as a risk factor for developing elevated COVID-19 stressors (e.g., Asmundson et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
Backgroundd’Ussel, M., Fels, A., Durand, X., Lemogne, C., Châtellier, G., Castreau, N., & Adam, F. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267032 · Cited by 9
“Moreover, those with anxiety-related disorders reported greater fears about danger and contamination and traumatic stress symptoms [31].”
BackgroundAsquini, G., Devecchi, V., Borromeo, G., Viscuso, D., Morato, F., Locatelli, M., & Falla, D. (2022) · Musculoskeletal Science and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.msksp.2022.102634 · Cited by 10
Aly, N. M., Elwan, A. H., Elzayet, R. M., Hassanato, N. M. R., Deif, M. A., Abdelaziz, W. E., & Tantawi, M. E. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-22961-z · Cited by 11
Ding, X., Jian, Z., Xu, Y., Lin, Z., Chen, Z., Zhang, Y., Huang, H., Chen, R., Xia, P., Zhang, W., et al. (2022) · Therapeutic Advances in Respiratory Disease · doi:10.1177/17534666221130215 · Cited by 9
Chowdhury, U., Das, T., Mazumder, S., & Gangopadhyay, S. (2023) · International Journal of Occupational Safety and Health · doi:10.3126/ijosh.v13i2.47775 · Cited by 9
Rivers, A. S., & Sanford, K. (2020) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12362 · Cited by 9
Giraldo, J. D. B., Pulido, J., Valencia, J. G., Acevedo, D. C. A., & Cardeño, C. (2021) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría · doi:10.1016/j.rcp.2021.09.002 · Cited by 15
Lee, J., Chon, J., Park, Y., & Lee, J. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20054259 · Cited by 8
“Number of COVID-19 Positive cases + COVID-19 Stress [28,39]”
BackgroundMethodImpact of natural views on mental health during COVID-19 quarantine: A natural experiment
Yen, M.-H., Li, D., Weng, P.-Y., & Chiang, Y.-C. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102455 · Cited by 8
Mitchell, A., Johnson, C. L., Schroeder, E., Ng, G. W., & Booker, J. A. (2024) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.13046 · Cited by 13
Chen, X., & Kühner, S. (2025) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-024-10211-9 · Cited by 8
“Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought forth virus-related and policy-induced stressors that affect mental well-being (Taylor et al., 2020).”
Prediction of COVID-19-related distress: the role of anxiety and resiliency
Francois, G. J., Carr, D. C., Meynadasy, M. A., & Sachs‐Ericsson, N. (2022) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2022.2084714 · Cited by 9
Grøtte, T., Hagen, K., Eid, J., Kvale, G., Hellard, S. L., & Solem, S. (2022) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2022.100758 · Cited by 9
“Nevertheless, a positive association between OCS and symptoms of distress/trauma has also been found in previous studies of OCS during pandemics (e.g., Chen et al., 2005; Taylor et al., 2020).”
ResultAre Fear Campaigns Effective for Increasing Adherence to COVID-Related Mitigation Measures?
Richmond, B., Sharpe, L., & Menzies, R. E. (2022) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-022-10137-y · Cited by 9
“The COVID Stress Scales (CSS) [58] replaced the SHAI.”
MethodKnežević, G., Lazarević, L. B., Mihić, L., Pejovic-Milovancevic, M. M., Terzić-Šupić, Z., Tošković, O., Vuković, O., Todorović, J., & Marić, N. P. (2023) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12431 · Cited by 11
Luk, J. W., Geda, D. W., Stangl, B. L., Cheng, C., Schwandt, M. L., Goldman, D. A., Diazgranados, N., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1268890 · Cited by 10
Castillo, J., Fan, H., Karaman, O. T., Shu, J., Stussi, Y., Kredlow, M. A., Vranos, S., Oyarzún, J. P., Dorfman, H. M., Sambrano, D. C., et al. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2346757 · Cited by 9
“Previous research and clinical observations suggest that people exhibited stress-related responses during the pandemic (Campo-Arias et al., 2020; Park et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
Psychological and Socio-Economic Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Turkish Population
Балоглу, М., Karataş, K., & Arpacı, İ. (2021) · Studies in systems, decision and control · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67716-9_15 · Cited by 9
“COVID Stress Scales (CSS) to measure the COVID-related anxiety and stress [9].”
MethodBardeen, J. R., Gorday, J. Y., & Clauss, K. E. (2021) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941211025260 · Cited by 8
“The CSS is a self-report measure that assesses COVID- 19-related worry, maladaptive behaviors, and distress (Taylor et al., 2020b).”
BackgroundInfluentialCimino, S., & Cerniglia, L. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111033 · Cited by 7
“Although lockdown periods and quarantines have mostly been documented to be associated with psychopathological symptoms in adults [3], recent literature proposed these difficulties to be especially problematic for adolescents, probably due to the particular importance of the peer group for identification and support i…”
BackgroundDevelopment and psychometric properties of COVID-19 related Healthcare Student stress scale (CHSSS)
Baghcheghi, N., Mesri, M., Karimy, M., Bigdeli, S., & Koohestani, H. R. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00778-9 · Cited by 8
“The dimensions are consistent with the previous works on the major role of the fear of catching infection, the fear for one’s significant others (such as relatives and friends) to catch the disease, and fear of transmitting the disease to others [27, 28].”
ResultYunus, F. M., Livet, A., Mahmoud, A., Moore, M., Murphy, C. B., Nogueira‐Arjona, R., Thompson, K., Keough, M. T., Krank, M. D., Conrod, P., et al. (2022) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych4040069 · Cited by 8
Predictive Modeling of Stress in the Healthcare Industry During COVID-19
Gupta, P., Maji, S., & Mehra, R. (2022) · International Journal of Decision Support System Technology · doi:10.4018/ijdsst.315758 · Cited by 8
“CSS was designed in May 2020 to identify the stress and to better comprehend and evaluate COVID-19-related mental suffering (Taylor et al., 2020).”
MethodEffect of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Cardiac Outpatients’ Perception of Seeking Medical Advice
Samargandy, S., Garni, T. A., Almoghairi, A., Alahmari, M., Alshehri, B. Y., Mosaad, M., Ahmed, J., Alamri, H., & Samargandy, S. A. (2020) · Journal of the Saudi Heart Association · doi:10.37616/2212-5043.1094 · Cited by 8
“Few papers recently discussed the effect of the pandemic and social distancing on stress levels among patients with chronic diseases, and its possible consequences [11,12], including medication compliance [13].”
BackgroundPadilla-Rivas, G. R., Delgado-Gallegos, J. L., Montemayor-Garza, R. D. J., Franco-Villareal, H., Cosío-León, M. D. L. Á., Avilés-Rodríguez, G. J., Zúñiga-Violante, E., Romo-Cárdenas, G. S., & Islas, J. F. (2021) · Data in Brief · doi:10.1016/j.dib.2021.106733 · Cited by 8
“We based t a a a i a t a u q A d S s a h f v t S a 2 c c ( c b n t E w he design on the original 36-item questionnaire CSS which is used to measure stress levels and nxiety symptoms in daily life [2] .”
MethodInfluentialWagener, A., Stassart, C., & Etienne, A.-M. (2022) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1082 · Cited by 7
Willie, T. C., Sharpless, L., Katague, M., & Kershaw, T. (2024) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1177/00333549241238895 · Cited by 7
“The scale has 5 subscales 29 ; however, we used the fears about economic consequences and traumatic stress symptoms subscales.”
Pacnejer, A.-M., Butucă, A., Dobrea, C. M., Arseniu, A. M., Frum, A., Gligor, F. G., Arseniu, R., Vonica, R. C., Vonica-Țincu, A. L., Oancea, C. I., et al. (2024) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v16121811 · Cited by 8
“…on the Likert Scale), • The COVID-19 Peritraumatic Distress Index contains 24 items regarding the anxiety, depression, specific phobias, cognitive change, avoidant and compulsive behaviors, physical symptoms and loss of social functioning in the past week (based on the Likert Scale) [221,222].”
COVID-19 related stress and fears of contamination: the impact of feared self-perceptions
Audet, J., Jacmin-Park, S., Kheloui, S., Gravel, C., Juster, R., & Aardema, F. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04553-w · Cited by 7
“Results indicate small differences for the malformed self and the danger, contam - ination and trauma subscales of the CSS, and a moderate difference on contamination symptoms, with women scor - ing higher on all significant comparisons.”
InfluentialA follow up survey on the impact of COVID-19 on hand therapy practice
Priganc, V. W., Naughton, N., Doerrer, S. B., & Ivy, C. C. (2021) · Journal of Hand Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.jht.2021.07.001 · Cited by 7
Alnaddaf, A., & Балоглу, М. (2021) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22642 · Cited by 7
The Effect of Pain Experienced During the COVID-19 Infection on the Fear of Pain and Quality of Life
Korkut, S., & Ülker, T. (2021) · Pain Management Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pmn.2021.08.007 · Cited by 7
Fear of COVID-19 in Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction
Marotta, M., Gorini, F., Parlanti, A., Chatzianagnostou, K., Mazzone, A., Berti, S. L., & Vassalle, C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18189847 · Cited by 7
“During the COVID-19 outbreak, specific psychometric tools were developed and validated to assess COVID-19 fear [4,5].”
MethodA multi‐centric study on validation of the Fear Scale for COVID‐19 in five Arabic speaking countries
Deek, H., El-Nayal, M., Alabdulwahhab, K. M., Ahmad, M. S., Shaik, R. A., Alzahrani, M. A., Mohamed, I. E., Youssef, N. F. A., Alboraie, M. A. A., Fong, D., et al. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2375 · Cited by 5
Analyzing the Stressors for Frontline Soldiers Fighting Against Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic
Shaukat, M. Z., Scholz, M., Qazi, T. F., Niazi, A. A. K., Basit, A., & Mahmood, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.751882 · Cited by 7
“Taylor et al. (2020) argued that many people display fear and anxiety-related distress reactions during the pandemic, which include dread of contracting an infection, fear of coming into touch with potentially contaminated things or surfaces, fear of infection from foreigners (i.e., diseaserelated…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTürkili, S., Aslan, E., Tot, Ş., Erdoğan, S., GÜLERYÜZ, G., Aktürk, B. E., & ÖZASLAN, E. (2022) · Anadolu Kliniği Tıp Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.21673/anadoluklin.1005533 · Cited by 7
Böhm, R. A., & Orth, U. R. (2022) · Business & Society · doi:10.1177/00076503221086849 · Cited by 7
“Measures were identical to the ones employed in Study 1, specifically, for transgression relevance, morality, performance, and moral decoupling (Bhattacharjee et al., 2013); intention (Putrevu & Lord, 1994); fear of infection (Mertens et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020); and moral delegation.”
MethodMahmood, Q. K., Sohail, M. M., Qureshi, W. A., Zakar, R., Wrona, K. J., & Fischer, F. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00869-7 · Cited by 9
“Such a large-scale outbreak may be followed by panic, fear, suspicion and stigma [6].”
BackgroundOkechukwu, G.-P., Nnam, M. U., Obadimu, C. E., Iloma, D. O., Offu, P. O., Okpata, F., & Nwakanma, E. U. (2022) · Journal of Forensic Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/24732850.2022.2102956 · Cited by 7
“The checking and traumatic stress items were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (almost always) (Taylor et al, 2020).”
BackgroundMethodGalanis, P., Vraka, I. S., Katsiroumpa, A., Konstantakopoulou, O., Siskou, O. C., Zogaki, E., & Καϊτελίδου, Δ. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11020269 · Cited by 9
“We used the 36-item COVID-19 Stress Scales (CSS) to measure COVID-19-related stress [48].”
MethodLac, A. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10033-z · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Taylor, S., Landry, C. A., Paluszek, M. M., Fergus, T. A., McKay, D., & Asmundson, G. J. G.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- University of Regina (CA)
- Baylor University (US)
- Fordham University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Asmundson, Gordon J.G.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-05
- Volume
- 72
- Pages
- 102232
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7198206
- OpenAlex
- W3020973746
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 219 · 2022: 270 · 2021: 344 · 2020: 123
- FWCI
- 95.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Fordham Research Commons (Fordham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- COVID Stress Scale, COVID-19 pandemic, pandemic stress, anxiety, fear of contamination, economic impact of pandemic, compulsive checking, reassurance seeking, traumatic stress symptoms, scale development, scale validation, mental health screening
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Canada, Fear, Female, Health Services Needs and Demand, Humans, Male, Mental Health Services, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Psychometrics, Stress, Psychological, Reproducibility of Results, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics
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