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Development and initial validation of the COVID Stress Scales
Open accessAbstract
Research and clinical observations suggest that during times of pandemic many people exhibit stress- or anxiety-related responses that include fear of becoming infected, fear of coming into contact with possibly contaminated objects or surfaces, fear of foreigners who might be carrying infection (i.e., disease-related xenophobia), fear of the socio-economic consequences of the pandemic, compulsive checking and reassurance-seeking regarding possible pandemic-related threats, and traumatic stress symptoms about the pandemic (e.g., nightmares, intrusive thoughts). We developed the 36-item COVID Stress Scales (CSS) to measure these features, as they pertain to COVID-19. The CSS were developed to better understand and assess COVID-19-related distress. The scales were intentionally designed so they could be readily adapted for future pandemics. The CSS were developed and initially validated in population-representative samples from Canada (N = 3479) and the United States (N = 3375). A stable 5-factor solution was identified, corresponding to scales assessing COVID-related stress and anxiety symptoms: (1) Danger and contamination fears, (2) fears about economic consequences, (3) xenophobia, (4) compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and (5) traumatic stress symptoms about COVID-19. The scales performed well on various indices of reliability and validity. The scales were intercorrelated, providing evidence of a COVID Stress Syndrome. The scales offer promise as tools for better understanding the distress associated with COVID-19 and for identifying people in need of mental health services.
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“Since the onset of the pandemic, an important number of studies have been interested in its psychological impacts and showed increases in rates of mental health disturbances.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Moreover, faced with the increase in the prevalence of psychological distress [3,4], it seems useful to invest in the development of prevention tools.”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [4]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“While the CSS is a novel measure, initial data suggest that the CSS is reliable (Cronbach’s α for individual subscales ranged from 0.86–0.95) and valid [97].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“While an initial five-factor structure was proposed, subsequent studies have proposed a six-factor solution [97,98].”
From Brief and Telehealth Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Interventions for Stress in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A Series of Single Case Experimental Design (SCED) Studies (2022) · cites this paper as [97]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“As per Taylor et al. (2020), anxiety mainly related to worries about catching the virus and socio‐economic concerns.”
From Living through lockdown: A qualitative exploration of individuals' experiences in the UK. (2022) · cites this paper as Taylor et al. (2020)
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“The CSS is a 36-item measure of COVID distress.”
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Items 201–300 of 999
The Fear of COVID-19 Familial Infection Scale: Development and Initial Psychometric Examination
Mayer, Y., Etgar, S., Shiffman, N., & Lurie, I. (2021) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2021.1998780 · Cited by 30
“To further test convergent validity, the FCFI could be compared to several additional instruments that have been developed to measure COVID fear (e.g., the COVID Stress Scales, Taylor et al., 2020).”
MethodHezel, D. M., Rapp, A. M., Wheaton, M. G., Kayser, R. R., Rose, S. V., Messner, G. R., Middleton, R., & Simpson, H. B. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.03.040 · Cited by 30
Delgado-Gallegos, J. L., Padilla-Rivas, G. R., Zúñiga-Violante, E., Avilés-Rodríguez, G. J., Arellanos-Soto, D., Franco-Villareal, H., Cosío-León, M. D. L. Á., Romo-Cárdenas, G. S., & Islas, J. F. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.669057 · Cited by 33
“, now adapted and applied to academic professionals (14, 28).”
BackgroundZaccari, V., D’Arienzo, M. C., Caiazzo, T., Magno, A., Amico, G., & Mancini, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.673161 · Cited by 27
“In addition, a new measure—the COVID Stress Scales (68)— was designed to assess contamination fears and compulsive checking due to COVID-19-related danger (57).”
BackgroundKira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H. A. M., Ashby, J. S., Rice, K. G., & Alhuwailah, A. (2021) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2021.1920270 · Cited by 28
“For instance, a great effort has been placed on measuring the fear of infection and perceived risk stressors, and related distress/anxiety (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Arpaci et al., 2020; Lee,2020; Nik cevi c, & Spada, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundNikas, I. P., Lamnisos, D., Meletiou-Mavrotheris, Μ., Themistocleous, S., Pieridi, C., Mytilinaios, D. G., Michaelides, C., & Johnson, E. O. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2159 · Cited by 28
Lotzin, A., Ketelsen, R., Novaković, I. Z., Lueger‐Schuster, B., Böttche, M., & Schäfer, I. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00790-z · Cited by 28
Medical Mistrust, COVID-19 Stress, and Intent to Vaccinate in Racial–Ethnic Minorities
Minaya, C., McKay, D., Benton, H., Blanc, J., & Seixas, A. A. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12060186 · Cited by 28
Marsden, K. M., Porter, J. M., & Robertson, I. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0271824 · Cited by 28
“COVID-19 challenges contagion fears, fears of adverse local and global economic consequences, xenophobia [15] and personal belief systems.”
BackgroundRossi, C., Bonanomi, A., & Oasi, O. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18115862 · Cited by 27
“[7] developed and validated the 36-item COVID Stress Scale (CSS) that takes into account the presence of potential traumatic stress symptoms related to COVID-19.”
MethodPredictors of Mental Health after the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Poland
Długosz, P. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11050544 · Cited by 27
“The conducted studies have shown that the social context of the pandemic is significant and thus should be taken into account while attempting to estimate mental health risk factors [14,33].”
BackgroundSystematic review of machine learning techniques to predict anxiety and stress in college students
Vergaray, A. D., Saboya, N., Necochea-Chamorro, J. I., Ramos, K. J. Z., & Valencia, Y. D. R. V. (2023) · Informatics in Medicine Unlocked · doi:10.1016/j.imu.2023.101391 · Cited by 27
Arslan, G. (2021) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2020.1871122 · Cited by 28
Buckner, J. D., Lewis, E. M., Abarno, C. N., Morris, P. E., Glover, N. I., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2021) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2020.1861084 · Cited by 30
“Given emerging evidence suggesting that COVID-19-related stress and anxiety may be multidimensional (Taylor et al., 2020), future research testing the roles of specific subtypes of COVID-related worry in these relations may be an important next step to understanding psychosocial vulnerability factors implicated in dri…”
BackgroundDeacon, S. H., Rodriguez, L. M., Elgendi, M. M., King, F. E., Nogueira‐Arjona, R., Sherry, S., & Stewart, S. H. (2021) · Couple and Family Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/cfp0000171 · Cited by 28
Pandey, V., Talan, A., Mahendru, M., & Shahzad, U. (2021) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-16002-x · Cited by 28
Determinants in Investment Behaviour During The COVID-19 Pandemic
Kiruba, A. S., & Vasantha, S. (2021) · Indonesian Capital Market Review · doi:10.21002/icmr.v13i2.13351 · Cited by 27
Newman, P. A., Chakrapani, V., Williams, C. C., Massaquoi, N., Tepjan, S., Roungprakhon, S., Akkakanjanasupar, P., Logie, C. H., & Rawat, S. M. (2021) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/34381 · Cited by 28
Exploring COVID-19–Related Stressors: Topic Modeling Study
Leung, Y. T., & Khalvati, F. (2022) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/37142 · Cited by 27
Who develops pandemic fatigue? Insights from Latent Class Analysis
Taylor, S., Rachor, G. S., & Asmundson, G. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276791 · Cited by 22
“Qualtrics solicited the present sample, for which no data have yet been reported on or published, as part of our ongoing research program [23, 24, 42].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAzila-Gbettor, E. M., Abiemo, M. K., & Glate, S. N. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e12832 · Cited by 33
“Current studies suggest the pandemic has led to a wide range of negative psychological repercussions among people, including fear [3], death distress [4], anxiety, stress, depression [5 – 7], and exhaustion [8].”
Greenblatt‐Kimron, L., Ring, L., Hoffman, Y. S. G., Shrira, A., Bodner, E., & Palgi, Y. (2021) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2021.13 · Cited by 27
“Future studies should use standardized measures (e.g., Ahorsu et al., 2020; Bitan et al., 2020; Lee, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
MethodAssociation of PTSD with COVID-19 testing and infection in the Veterans Health Administration
Haderlein, T. P., Wong, M. S., Yuan, A. H., Llorente, M. D., & Washington, D. L. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.11.033 · Cited by 25
Ardestani, S. M. S., Khosravani, V., Bastan, F. S., & Балоглу, М. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00523-0 · Cited by 27
Alon-Tirosh, M., Hadar‐Shoval, D., Asraf, K., Tannous-Haddad, L., & Tzischinsky, O. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18189695 · Cited by 27
Predictors of COVID-19 Stress and COVID-19 Vaccination Acceptance among Adolescents in Ghana
Adjaottor, E. S., Addo, F.-M., Ahorsu, F. A., Chen, H., & Ahorsu, D. K. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19137871 · Cited by 26
“It has acceptable psychometric properties [73].”
BackgroundLuk, J. W., Stangl, B. L., Schwandt, M. L., Gunawan, T., Joseph, P. V., Momenan, R., Goldman, D. A., Diazgranados, N., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2022) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0001044 · Cited by 27
Lavelle, J., Storan, D., Eswara Murthy, V., De Dominicis, N., Mulcahy, H. E., & McHugh, L. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11102757 · Cited by 23
“While an initial five-factor structure was proposed, subsequent studies have proposed a six-factor solution [97,98].”
BackgroundLotzin, A., Franc de Pommereau, A., & Laskowsky, I. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20075339 · Cited by 36
“Study Intervention Name and Description Study Design Timepoint of Intervention after Stressor Exposure No. of Sessions Type of Stressor Target Population Delivery Format Assessed Outcomes Results Keyan et al. (2021) [39] Problem Management Plus (PM+) [34]: Brief psychosocial intervention Adaption to be delivered in a…”
MethodMahamid, F. A., Veronese, G., Bdier, D., & Pancake, R. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01794-5 · Cited by 25
COVID-19 Experiences and Parental Mental Health
Hart, J., & Han, W. (2020) · Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research · doi:10.1086/711613 · Cited by 27
“Another study using a large online sample from the U.S. and Canada showed that the pandemic was significantly associated with increased stress and fears about economic consequences, xenophobia, or traumatic stress symptoms (Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSmith, M., Nakamoto, M., Crocker, J., Morden, F. T. C., Liu, K., Ma, E., Chong, A., Van, N., Vajjala, V. S., Carrazana, E. J., et al. (2020) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/head.14030 · Cited by 25
Psychometric properties of the Brazilian version of the fear of COVID-19 scale (FCV-19S)
de Medeiros, É. D., Reis, L. M., Guimarães, C. L. C., da Silva, P. G. N., Monteiro, R. P., Coelho, G. L. D. H., Guimarães, C. M. C., Martins, E. R. D. S., & de França, L. L. A. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01476-2 · Cited by 27
The Effect of Persuasive Messages in Promoting Home-Based Physical Activity During COVID-19 Pandemic
Carfora, V., & Catellani, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.644050 · Cited by 21
“Second, regular exercise is associated with emotional resilience to stress (Childs and de Wit, 2014), one of the positive psychological responses observed during times of pandemics (Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundKhozaei, F., Kim, M. J., Nematipour, N., & Ali, A. (2021) · Journal of Facilities Management · doi:10.1108/jfm-09-2020-0065 · Cited by 25
Calandri, E., Graziano, F., Begotti, T., Cattelino, E., Gattino, S., Rollero, C., & Fedi, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643088 · Cited by 30
“, 2021), stress, irritability, anger (Shanahan et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020), anxiety related to the concerns of contagion (Mazza et al.”
BackgroundA Microbiome-Driven Approach to Combating Depression During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Ghannoum, M. A., Ford, M., Bonomo, R. A., Gamal, A., & McCormick, T. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.672390 · Cited by 24
Jamieson, J., Yamashita, N., Epstein, D. A., & Chen, Y. (2021) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3479868 · Cited by 25
Older Women’s Loneliness and Depression Decreased by a Reminiscence Program in Times of COVID-19
Hernandis, S. P., Sales, A., & Martínez, D. E. P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.802925 · Cited by 26
Vargová, L., Jozefiaková, B., Lačný, M., & Adamkovic, M. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01687-9 · Cited by 34
“The primary inspiration was thus drawn from the validated measures of COVID-19 stress [e.g., 25, 26]; (c) a non-systematic screening of online discussion content (e.g., online journals, social networks) to potentially identify further stressful topics.”
BackgroundCOVID-19 and Depressive Symptoms: A Community-based Study in Quebec, Canada
Schmitz, N., Holley, P., Meng, X., Fish, L., & Jedwab, J. (2020) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0706743720943812 · Cited by 23
“Previous studies have focused on stress in the Canadian population during COVID-19.(2) To our knowledge, no previous study has used a validated instrument for the assessment of depressive symptoms in the Canadian community during the COVID-19 crisis that can be compared to the level of depressive symptoms in the gener…”
MethodInfluentialMoreta‐Herrera, R., López-Calle, C., Caycho‐Rodríguez, T., Guerra, C. B. C., Gallegos, M., Cervigni, M., Martino, P., Barés, I., & Calandra, M. (2021) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2021.1914240 · Cited by 23
“Recently, different specific measures have been tested to assess the psychological responses of anxiety, obsession, stress, perception of threat, and fear in the face of COVID-19 (Ahorsu et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; P erez-Fuentes et al., 2020; Ransing et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCo-Housing Response to Social Isolation of COVID-19 Outbreak, with a Focus on Gender Implications
Giorgi, E., López, L. M., Garnica-Monroy, R., Krstikj, A., Cobreros, C., & Montoya, M. Á. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13137203 · Cited by 24
“…x x Casagrande et al., 2020 COVID-19; Generalized Anxiety Psychological Well-being; Post-traumatic Stress Disorder; PTSD; Sleep Quality x x x x Taylor et al., 2020 Anxiety; Coronavirus; COVID-19; Fear;Pandemic; Stress; Xenophobia x x x x Park et al., 2020 Coronavirus; COVID-19; Optimistic…”
Values and COVID-19 worries: The importance of emotional stability traits
Fischer, R. D., Bortolini, T., Pilati, R., Porto, J. B., & Moll, J. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111079 · Cited by 23
Zammitti, A., Imbrogliera, C., Russo, A., Zarbo, R., & Magnano, P. (2021) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe11030050 · Cited by 26
“Avoidance, together with thoughts or intrusive imagery, constitutes one of the variables that form the COVID stress syndrome [57,58].”
BackgroundBok, S., Martin, D. E., & Lee, M. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103382 · Cited by 25
Mental health of the Mexican population during the COVID-19 pandemic
Rodríguez-Hernández, C., Espinosa, O. M., & Hernández-Sánchez, A. (2021) · Gaceta Médica de México · doi:10.24875/gmm.20000612 · Cited by 40
Investigating COVID‐19 stress and coping: Substance use and behavioural disengagement
Greenglass, E., Chiacchia, D., & Fiskenbaum, L. (2021) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12820 · Cited by 22
“, 2020) and COVID-19 Stress Scales (Taylor et al., 2020), since they had not yet been released.”
BackgroundMethodGender Differences in the Factors Associated With the Fear of COVID-19 Among Taiwanese Older People
Li, Y., Lin, C., Kuo, Y., Chen, Y., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021) · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · doi:10.1177/00469580211055587 · Cited by 23
Shek, D. T. L., Chai, W., Wong, T., & Zhou, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1071938 · Cited by 24
AI-Enhanced Culturally Sensitive Public Health Messaging: A Scoping Review
Davies, G. K., Davies, M. L. K., Adewusi, E., Moneke, K. C., Adeleke, O., Mosaku, L. A., Oboh, A., Shaba, D. S., Isa, A. K., Egbedimame, J., et al. (2024) · E-Health Telecommunication Systems and Networks · doi:10.4236/etsn.2024.134004 · Cited by 29
Suen, Y. T., Chan, R. C. H., & Wong, E. M. Y. (2021) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2021.04.005 · Cited by 23
COVID-19 phobia in healthcare workers; a cross-sectional study from a pandemic hospital
Arslan, B. O., Batum, Ö., Varol, Y., Şenel, E., & Uçar, Z. Z. (2021) · Tuberkuloz ve Toraks · doi:10.5578/tt.20219810 · Cited by 24
“For this purpose, several measurement tools have been developed and validated to measure anxiety, fear, and phobia related to the COVID-19 pandemic (14-16).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialImpact of COVID-19 Related Stress on Sexual Desire and Behavior in a Canadian Sample
Brotto, L. A., Jabs, F., Brown, N. B., Milani, S., & Zdaniuk, B. (2021) · International Journal of Sexual Health · doi:10.1080/19317611.2021.1947932 · Cited by 22
“The average stress score of the sample paralleled approximately moderate levels of stress, which is consistent with published data on stress levels of the population early in the pandemic (Stanton et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
MethodResultValidity and reliability of the Serbian COVID Stress Scales
Milić, M., Dotlić, J., Rachor, G. S., Asmundson, G. J. G., Joksimović, B., Stevanović, J., Lazić, D., Stanojević-Ristić, Z., Filimonovic, J. S., Radenkovic, N., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259062 · Cited by 22
Adamczyk, K., Clark, D. A., & Pradelok, J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0260459 · Cited by 22
“The CSS was originally developed using English speaking, North American samples [8] but has already been translated into a number of languages, including Albanian, Chinese, French, Lithuanian, Malay, Marathi, Hindi, Persian, Portuguese (adapted for adolescents), Serbian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, and Urdu (https://co…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGewirtz‐Meydan, A., & Lassri, D. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105442 · Cited by 22
“With the outbreak of COVID-19, national polls have indicated sharp increases in fear and worries relating to the virus (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020).”
Tran-Chi, V.-L., Ly, T.-T., Luu-Thi, H.-T., Huynh, V.-S., & Nguyen-Thi, M.-T. (2021) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s345244 · Cited by 25
Jamieson, J., Epstein, D. A., Chen, Y., & Yamashita, N. (2022) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3491102.3501963 · Cited by 22
“When asking about the pandemic more generally, we included questions about various types of stress, derived from the COVID Stress Scales [84].”
MethodFatal overdose: Predicting to prevent
Bórquez, A., & Martin, N. K. (2022) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2022.103677 · Cited by 22
Impact of COVID-19 on mental health and career anxiety of hospitality and tourism students in the UK
Rahimi, R., Akgündüz, Y., & Bilgihan, A. (2022) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights · doi:10.1108/jhti-05-2021-0129 · Cited by 24
Lecuona, O. Z., Lin, C., Rozgonjuk, D., Norekvål, T. M., Iversen, M. M., Mamun, M. A., Griffiths, M. D., Lin, T.-I., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19116824 · Cited by 22
“, COVID stress scales [32]) were used in the present study to investigate how fear of COVID-19 associates with other relevant psychological constructs and behaviors.”
BackgroundMethodBoulet, M., & Parent‐Lamarche, A. (2022) · Public Personnel Management · doi:10.1177/00910260221102943 · Cited by 27
“This pandemic and the restrictive health measures imposed in many countries have also produced side effects on the psychological well-being of individuals (Qiu et al., 2020; Sher, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBeshai, S., Salimuddin, S., Refaie, N., & Maierhoffer, J. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-02008-0 · Cited by 22
Midorikawa, H., Tachikawa, H., Aiba, M., Shiratori, Y., Sugawara, D., Kawakami, N., Okubo, R., & Tabuchi, T. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20010429 · Cited by 22
“Public Health 2023, 20, 429. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010429 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph such as the Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S) [9], the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale [10], and the 36-item COVID Stress Scale [11].”
MethodInfluentialPsychometric properties of the Turkish version of the COVID-19 Impact Scale in university students
Yıldırım, M., & Şanlı, M. E. (2023) · Journal of School and Educational Psychology · doi:10.47602/josep.v3i1.34 · Cited by 22
Infanti, A., Starčević, V., Schimmenti, A., Khazaal, Y., Karila, L., Giardina, A., Flayelle, M., Razavi, S. B. H., Baggio, S., Vögele, C., et al. (2023) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/42206 · Cited by 26
“Worries and fear are centrally involved in COVID-19–related psychopathologies and problematic behaviors [8-11].”
BackgroundAsmundson, G. J. G., Blackstock, C., Bourque, M. C., Brimacombe, G., Crawford, A. S., Deacon, S. H., McMullen, K., McGrath, P. J., Mushquash, C. J., Stewart, S. H., et al. (2020) · FACETS · doi:10.1139/facets-2020-0082 · Cited by 23
“As in previous pandemics (Taylor, 2019), there has been a widespread increase in distress (Taylor et al., 2020a,b,c,d).”
BackgroundTaylor, S., Fong, A., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.632227 · Cited by 19
Interventions to Optimise Mental Health Outcomes During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Scoping Review
Safieh, J., Broughan, J., McCombe, G., McCarthy, N., Frawley, T., Guérandel, A., Lambert, J. S., & Cullen, W. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00558-3 · Cited by 19
Stassart, C., Wagener, A., & Étienne, A.-M. (2021) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1059 · Cited by 21
Maliňáková, K., Novák, L., Trnka, R., & Tavel, P. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182412962 · Cited by 21
“Fear of becoming infected, fear for the health and lives of significant others, fear of the socioeconomic consequences of the pandemic, fear of the unavailability of healthcare, and fear of an insufficient food supply are examples of alarmed and anxiety-related responses to the COVID-19 crisis [33,34].”
BackgroundSajid, K. S., Hussain, S., Hussain, R. I., & Mustafa, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.826870 · Cited by 21
Spanish Translation and Validation of the COVID Stress Scales in Peru
Noé-Grijalva, M., Polo-Ambrocio, A., Gómez-Bedia, K., & Caycho‐Rodríguez, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.840302 · Cited by 25
Depression as a mediator between fear of COVID-19 and death anxiety
Gündoğan, S., & Arpacı, İ. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03120-z · Cited by 31
“The COVID-19 virus has rapidly spread to all seven continents and 187 countries since March 2020 (WHO, 2020) and caused tremendous anxiety and fear in the world (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020; Lee, 2020; Taylor et al., 2020).”
Vaydich, J. L., & Cheung, R. Y. M. (2022) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/10664807221123556 · Cited by 24
“Parents completed the 36-item COVID Stress Scale (Taylor et al., 2020) using a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely).”
MethodTee, K. R., Ismail, A. S., Ang, Y. H., Hishamuddin, H. H., Paul, V. J., Aizuddin, A. N., & Zaini, I. Z. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013010 · Cited by 21
“They include fears of danger and contamination, fears about economic consequences, Coronavirus-related xenophobia, compulsive checking and reassurance seeking, and traumatic stress symptoms [37].”
BackgroundSmolić, Š., Fabijančić, M., & Blaževski, N. (2022) · Eastern European Economics · doi:10.1080/00128775.2022.2150218 · Cited by 21
“…of COVID-19 Scale” (Ahorsu et al. 2022; Alimoradi et al. 2022a; Lin et al. 2021) within different populations to assess individuals’ fear, suggesting that many people exhibit fear of becoming infected during the COVID-19 pandemic (Doshi et al. 2020; Pakpour and Griffiths 2020; Taylor et al. 2020).”
BackgroundElhai, J. D., Yang, H., McKay, D., Asmundson, G. J. G., & Montag, C. (2021) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2021.1878158 · Cited by 22
Living through lockdown: A qualitative exploration of individuals' experiences in the UK.
Taylor, C., Lafarge, C., Cahill, S., Milani, R., & Görzig, A. (2022) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.13772 · Cited by 19
Kato, Y., Poh, W., Horváth, Z., Cadiou, F., Shimazu, T., & Maruki, Y. (2021) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-021-02378-3 · Cited by 20
“COVID Stress Scales [7], which are scales measuring COVID-related stress and anxiety symptoms, may offer promise as tools for better understanding patients with COVID stress-related migraine.”
MethodCostin, V., & Vignoles, V. L. (2021) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12682 · Cited by 21
“Because data was collected in July 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic, we also asked questions about participants’ subjective concerns about the pandemic by adapting items from existing measures (Sloan et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2020): fear of contamination (3 items, α = .”
MethodChhatwani, M. N., Mishra, S. K., & Rai, H. (2022) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2022.2045359 · Cited by 21
“National polls have shown a huge increase in worry and fear than the virus, and negative emotions such as stress, fear, and anxiety are widespread (Asmundson and Taylor 2020; Taylor et al. 2020).”
BackgroundBerg, J. A., Woods, N. F., Shaver, J. L. F., & Kostas-Polston, E. A. (2022) · Nursing Outlook · doi:10.1016/j.outlook.2022.05.001 · Cited by 20
Tarsitani, L., Pinucci, I., Tedeschi, F., Patanè, M., Papola, D., Palantza, C., Acartürk, C., Björkenstam, E., Bryant, R. A., Burchert, S., et al. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04265-8 · Cited by 20
“In line with recent literature [87], people with a general fear of contamination were less resilient, especially in the first months of the pandemic when governments and media reported daily raw data on infections and mortality due to COVID-19 worldwide.”
BackgroundVulnerability and fraud: evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic
Zhang, Y., Wu, Q., Zhang, T., & Yang, L. (2022) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-022-01445-5 · Cited by 20
“…natural disasters or pandemics, individuals are likely to become more fearful (LeDoux and Pine, 2016; Mobbs et al., 2007), experience health anxiety (Vigo et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020a, 2020b), and suffer from psychological distress and mental disorders (Mobbs et al., 2009; Liem et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGvozden, T. V., Baucal, A., Krstic, K., & Filipović, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.737188 · Cited by 18
Khoo, S. S., Toh, W. X., & Yang, H. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110675 · Cited by 21
“People across the world are struggling with the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, which include the fear of contracting COVID-19 and anxiety about uncertainty, unemployment, and the constraints related to quarantine or lockdown measures (Taylor et al., 2020).”
BackgroundFaith and science mindsets as predictors of COVID-19 concern: A three-wave longitudinal study
Johnson, K. A., Baraldi, A. N., Moon, J. W., Okun, M. A., & Cohen, A. B. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104186 · Cited by 18
“1 A 36-item measure of COVID-19 stress became available in May 2020 (Taylor et al., 2020).”
Psychological Factors Explaining Perceived Impact of COVID-19 on Travel
Magano, J., Vidal, D. G., Sousa, H. F. P. E., Dinis, M. A. P., & Leite, Â. M. T. (2021) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe11040083 · Cited by 20
“In addition to questions regarding sociodemographics (gender, age, education, and employment status), the protocol used in this study included seven questions concerning the perceived impact of COVID-19 on travel, four psychological instruments previously validated to the Portuguese population related to COVID-19 (COV…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAdolescents’ mental health status and influential factors amid the Coronavirus Disease pandemic
Angelina, S., Kurniawan, A., Agung, F. H., Halim, D. A., Wijovi, F., Jodhinata, C., Evangelista, N. N., Agatha, C. M., Orlin, S., & Hamdoyo, A. (2021) · Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health · doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2021.100903 · Cited by 19
Jain, A., Dash, S., & Malhotra, N. K. (2023) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-11-2021-0864 · Cited by 20
Dong, Y., Chen, M., Wu, Z., & Zhang, Z. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01610-2 · Cited by 23
“COVID-19 pressures were assessed using the COVID Stress Scales developed by Taylor et al. [73].”
MethodThompson, K. A., & Bardone‐Cone, A. M. (2021) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-021-01120-9 · Cited by 18
Pandemics and Clinical Psychology
Taylor, S. J. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00164-3 · Cited by 19
“Severe scores on the scales, combined with evidence of functional impairment due to COVID-19-related distress, are indicative of a COVID Stress Disorder (Asmundson and Taylor, 2020).”
BackgroundGrande, R. A. N., Berdida, D. J. E., Paulino, R. R. J. C., Anies, E. A., Ebol, R. R. T., & Molina, R. R. (2021) · Nursing Forum · doi:10.1111/nuf.12675 · Cited by 18
Sukhawathanakul, P., Hadwin, A. F., Rostampour, R., Olivares, M. B., & Shostak, K. (2022) · Journal of College Student Retention Research Theory & Practice · doi:10.1177/15210251221104245 · Cited by 21
“COVID-19 psychological distress was measured using the COVID Stress Scales (Taylor et al., 2020) which comprised of (23 items) that yielded 5 sub-dimensions related to (1) danger and contamination fears (e.g., I am worried about catching the virus from handling money or using a debit machine), (2) fears about economic…”
Reid, C. N., Beckstead, J. W., & Salinas‐Miranda, A. (2022) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2022.2089044 · Cited by 18
Broos, H. C., Llabre, M. M., Saab, P. G., Leite, R. O., Port, J. H., & Timpano, K. R. (2022) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12391 · Cited by 18
“…three times higher than the percentage of US adults meeting the same clinical cut-offs for depression and anxiety pre-pandemic in 2019 (Terlizzi & Schiller, 2021), and are in line with rates reported during the pandemic for populations similar to the current sample (Czeisler et al.,…”
ResultNavarrete-Hernández, P., Rennert, L., & Balducci, A. (2022) · Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2022.11.011 · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Taylor, S., Landry, C. A., Paluszek, M. M., Fergus, T. A., McKay, D., & Asmundson, G. J. G.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- University of Regina (CA)
- Baylor University (US)
- Fordham University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Asmundson, Gordon J.G.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-05
- Volume
- 72
- Pages
- 102232
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7198206
- OpenAlex
- W3020973746
- Cited by
- 1,169
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 219 · 2022: 270 · 2021: 344 · 2020: 123
- FWCI
- 95.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Fordham Research Commons (Fordham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- COVID Stress Scale, COVID-19 pandemic, pandemic stress, anxiety, fear of contamination, economic impact of pandemic, compulsive checking, reassurance seeking, traumatic stress symptoms, scale development, scale validation, mental health screening
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Canada, Fear, Female, Health Services Needs and Demand, Humans, Male, Mental Health Services, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Psychometrics, Stress, Psychological, Reproducibility of Results, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics
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