The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A GIS of affordances: Movement and visibility at a planned colonial town in highland Peru
Abstract
Archaeological GIS is moving towards increasingly detailed, embodied, multidimensional simulations and analyses of human experience in the past. Most of the emerging GIS research synthesizing spatial modeling and subject-centered approaches has been concerned with practices and perceptions of landscape. This paper tightens the analytical focus to the more intimate scale of a single settlement, combining models of movement and visual experience within a planned colonial town in highland Peru. Such a rendering is important, since controlling movement and visual experience were central to the colonial project that built this and other such towns in the Viceroyalty of Peru. This study centers on an exceptionally well-preserved, relict planned colonial town in highland Peru to investigate affordances of movement and visibility within it. Several GIS-based simulations and analytical techniques are brought together, including drone-based high resolution three dimensional modeling, spatial network analysis, walking models, and cumulative viewshed analysis, to simulate aggregate visual experience as people moved through the town. The results are suggestive of how the layout of the town specifically routed transit to facilitate the visual prominence of the church and original Inka plaza of the reducción, as well as the prominence of indigenous elite households. Both continuities and discontinuities of movement and visual experience relative to Inkaic and Spanish colonial spaces are evident. By extension, this paper also provides a pathway for quantitative and reproducible modeling of site-scale movement and visual affordances as dimensions of subject and community formation in other global contexts.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Citations
Cites
The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception
Bornstein, M. H., & Gibson, J. J. (1980) · The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism · doi:10.2307/429816 · Cited by 22,935
Swyngedouw, E. A., & Lefebvre, H. (1992) · Economic Geography · doi:10.2307/144191 · Cited by 9,667
Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed
Fukuyama, F., & Scott, J. C. (1998) · Foreign Affairs · doi:10.2307/20048980 · Cited by 8,418
The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems
West, C. K., & Gibson, J. J. (1969) · Journal of Aesthetic Education · doi:10.2307/3331482 · Cited by 6,344
The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems
Boring, E. G., & Gibson, J. J. (1967) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1420561 · Cited by 3,186
A Phenomenology of Landscape: Places, Paths and Monuments
Tilley, C. (1994) · Cited by 2,025
Seeing Like a StateHow Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed
West, H. G. (1998) · PoLAR Political and Legal Anthropology Review · doi:10.1525/pol.1998.21.2.127 · Cited by 1,786
An Outline of a Theory of Affordances
Chemero, A. P. (2003) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco1502_5 · Cited by 1,363
Perceiving affordances: Visual guidance of stair climbing.
Warren, W. H. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.10.5.683 · Cited by 1,301
Affordances and Prospective Control: An Outline of the Ontology
Turvey, M. T. (1992) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco0403_3 · Cited by 933
Perceiving affordances: Visual guidance of stair climbing.
Warren, W. H. (1984) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.10.5.683 · Cited by 736
Affordances as properties of the animal–environment system
Stoffregen, T. A. (2003) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco1502_2 · Cited by 609
Gieryn, T. F. (2002) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1023/a:1014404201290 · Cited by 539
HEFT, H. (1989) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.1989.tb00133.x · Cited by 522
Smith, A. T. (2019) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520936997 · Cited by 497
Floor Area and Settlement Population
Naroll, R. S. (1962) · American Antiquity · doi:10.2307/277689 · Cited by 354
The Spatial Humanities: GIS and the Future of Humanities Scholarship
Bodenhamer, D. J., Corrigan, J. M., & Harris, T. M. (2010) · Cited by 350
Urban images of the Hispanic world, 1493-1793
Kagan, R. L. (2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.38-1107 · Cited by 293
Culture and the perception of the environment
Schlee, G. (2002) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203036129-9 · Cited by 229
Experiencing the past? The development of a phenomenological archaeology in British prehistory
Brück, J. (2005) · Archaeological Dialogues · doi:10.1017/s1380203805001583 · Cited by 228
Bush Base: Forest Farm - Culture, Environment and Development
Richards, P. M., Croll, E., & Parkin, D. J. (1994) · Geographical Journal · doi:10.2307/3060105 · Cited by 224
Archaeology of performance: theaters of power, community, and politics
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-3358 · Cited by 221
The Archaeology of Plazas and the Proxemics of Ritual: Three Andean Traditions
Moore, J. D. (1996) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.4.02a00090 · Cited by 220
Exploring the topography of mind: GIS, social space and archaeology
Llobera, M. (1996) · Antiquity · doi:10.1017/s0003598x00083745 · Cited by 203
Architecture and Power in the Ancient Andes: The Archaeology of Public Buildings.
Moseley, M. E., & Moore, J. D. (1997) · Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute · doi:10.2307/3034039 · Cited by 182
Jones, K. S. (2003) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco1502_1 · Cited by 180
Sánchez, G. H. (2012) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004217454_003 · Cited by 180
Howey, M. C. L. (2007) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.01.002 · Cited by 172
Howey, M. C. L. (2011) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.03.024 · Cited by 168
The political landscape: constellations of authority in early complex polities
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-5382 · Cited by 162
Stoffregen, T. A. (2000) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco1201_1 · Cited by 130
Huarochiri: An Andean Society under Inca and Spanish Rule.
Keen, B., & Spalding, K. (1985) · Hispanic American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/2514676 · Cited by 123
The Archaeology of Wak'as: Explorations of the Sacred in the Pre-Columbian Andes
address, M., University Press of Colorado, Ste, M. S., PMB, Denver, -, C., & -, P. (2015) · University Press of Colorado eBooks · doi:10.5876/9781607323181 · Cited by 111
Colonialism and Landscape: Postcolonial Theory and Applications
Desbiens, C. (2003) · Annals of the Association of American Geographers · doi:10.1111/1467-8306.t01-1-93020149 · Cited by 101
Revolt: an archaeological history of Pueblo resistance and revitalization in 17th century New Mexico
(2013) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.50-2852 · Cited by 96
Landscape phenomenology, GIS and the role of affordance
Gillings, M. (2012) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9137-4 · Cited by 94
The seeds of commerce: A network analysis-based approach to the Romano-British transport system
Orengo, H. A., & Livarda, A. (2015) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.12.003 · Cited by 93
Vertical Empire: The General Resettlement of Indians in the Colonial Andes
Mumford, J. R. (2012) · doi:10.1215/9780822395591 · Cited by 88
Llobera, M. (2012) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9139-2 · Cited by 81
Mapping the Political Landscape: Toward a GIS Analysis of Environmental and Social Difference
Kosiba, S., & Bauer, A. M. (2013) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-011-9126-z · Cited by 80
VISUAL AFFORDANCE, LANDSCAPE, AND THE MEGALITHS OF ALDERNEY
GILLINGS, M. (2009) · Oxford Journal of Archaeology · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0092.2009.00332.x · Cited by 79
Orbis: The Stanford Geospatial Network Model of the Roman WorldPreprint
Scheidel, W. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2609654 · Cited by 79
D’Altroy, T. N. (1987) · American Antiquity · doi:10.2307/281811 · Cited by 75
Modeling slope as a contributor to route selection in mountainous areas
Pingel, T. J. (2010) · Cartography and Geographic Information Science · doi:10.1559/152304010791232163 · Cited by 72
Colonialism and Landscape: Postcolonial Theory and Applications
Sluyter, A. (2001) · Civil War Book Review · Cited by 69
Wernke, S. A. (2007) · International Journal of Historical Archaeology · doi:10.1007/s10761-007-0027-5 · Cited by 56
Self-citationWhen Utensils Revolt: Mind, Matter, and Modes of Being in the Pre-Columbian Andes
Allen, C. J. (1998) · Res Anthropology and Aesthetics · doi:10.1086/resv33n1ms20166999 · Cited by 54
Negotiated settlements: Andean communities and landscapes under Inka and Spanish colonialism
(2013) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.50-6360 · Cited by 53
Enduring Conquests: Rethinking the Archaeology of Resistance to Spanish Colonialism in the Americas
Ramenofsky, A. F. (2012) · Hispanic American Historical Review · doi:10.1215/00182168-1600416 · Cited by 53
Urco and uma: Aymara concepts of space
Bouysse-Cassagne, T. (1986) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511753091.018 · Cited by 52
Perception of a Stepping-Across Affordance
Cornus, S., Montagne, G., & Laurent, M. (1999) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco1104_1 · Cited by 49
Landscape, Experience and GIS: Exploring the Potential for Methodological Dialogue
Rennell, R. (2012) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9144-5 · Cited by 46
Architecture and power in the ancient Andes: the archaeology of public buildings
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3949 · Cited by 46
Andean Wak’as and Alternative Configurations of Persons, Power, and Things
Bray, T. L. (2015) · University Press of Colorado eBooks · doi:10.5876/9781607323181.c001 · Cited by 41
Affordances and Events: Theory and Research
Stoffregen, T. A. (2000) · Ecological Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15326969eco1201_11 · Cited by 37
The Moche Revolt of the Objects
Quilter, J. (1990) · Latin American Antiquity · doi:10.2307/971709 · Cited by 37
Unsettling Time: Persistence and Memory in Spanish Colonial Peru
VanValkenburgh, P. (2017) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-017-9321-7 · Cited by 36
Livarda, A., & Orengo, H. A. (2015) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.008 · Cited by 35
Spatial network analysis of a terminal prehispanic and early colonial settlement in highland peru
Wernke, S. A. (2012) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.12.014 · Cited by 32
Self-citationDillehay, T. D. (2003) · Boletín de Arqueología PUCP · doi:10.18800/boletindearqueologiapucp.200301.015 · Cited by 22
McEwan, D. G. (2012) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9143-6 · Cited by 18
Anthropological History of Andean Polities.
Gose, P., & Murra, J. V. (1987) · Man · doi:10.2307/2803380 · Cited by 18
VanValkenburgh, N. P. (2013) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) · Cited by 17
What Is a Wak’a? When Is a Wak’a?
Chase, Z. J. (2015) · University Press of Colorado eBooks · doi:10.5876/9781607323181.c004 · Cited by 17
McEwan, D. G., & Millican, K. (2012) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9155-2 · Cited by 14
El palacio, la plaza y la fiesta en el imperio Inca
Morris, C., Topic, J. R., Pillsbury, J., Lechtman, H., & Curatola, M. (2013) · doi:10.18800/9786124146510 · Cited by 5
Wernke, S. A. (2017) · Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú eBooks · doi:10.18800/9786123172251.010 · Cited by 4
Self-citation(1993)
(1993) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
(2000)
Other Cuzcos: Replicated Theaters of Inka Power
Coben, L. S. (2006) · Archaeology of Performance · doi:10.5040/9798216418320.ch-008
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Albó, 1972, Dinámica en la estructura intercomunitaria de jesús de machaca, Am. Indíg., 32, 773
- Schuetz-Miller, 2000, Survival of Early Christian Symbolism in Monastic Churches of New Spain and Visions of the Millennial Kingdom, J. Southwest, 42, 763
- Wernke, 2015, Building Tension. Dilemmas of the Built Environment through Inca and Spanish Rule.” Tribus (special edition) Perspectives on the Inca, 165
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Mei, L., & Nijhuis, S. (2020) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2020.106376 · Cited by 121
Fábrega‐Álvarez, P., & Parcero‐Oubiña, C. (2019) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2019.02.002 · Cited by 54
The Role of UAS–GIS in Digital Era Governance. A Systematic Literature Review
Hognogi, G.-G., Pop, A.-M., Marian-Potra, A.-C., & Someșfălean, T. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su131911097 · Cited by 37
Introducing visual neighbourhood configurations for total viewsheds
Brughmans, T., van Garderen, M., & Gillings, M. (2018) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2018.05.006 · Cited by 33
Seifried, R. M., & Gardner, C. A. M. (2019) · Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.01.014 · Cited by 29
Intxaurbe, I., Rivero, O., Medina-Alcaide, M. Á., Arriolabengoa, M., Ríos-Garaizar, J., Salazar, S., López, J. F. R., Ortega-Martínez, P., & Maidagán, D. G. (2020) · Quaternary International · doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.04.027 · Cited by 26
Intxaurbe, I., Maidagán, D. G., Arriolabengoa, M., & Medina-Alcaide, M. Á. (2022) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-022-09552-y · Cited by 24
Inglis, N. C., & Vukomanovic, J. (2020) · Ecosystem Services · doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2020.101190 · Cited by 22
Intxaurbe, I., Arriolabengoa, M., Medina-Alcaide, M. Á., Rivero, O., Rios-Garaizar, J., Salazar, S., Líbano, I., & Garate, D. (2021) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105271 · Cited by 21
Ames, C. J. H., Shaw, M., O’Driscoll, C. A., & Mackay, A. (2020) · Journal of Field Archaeology · doi:10.1080/00934690.2020.1753321 · Cited by 16
Landeschi, G., & Betts, E. (2023) · Quantitative methods in the humanities and social sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-23133-9 · Cited by 14
A multidirectional model for studying mobility affordance of past landscapes
Kohut, L. E. (2018) · Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.02.031 · Cited by 12
Self-citationCounter-Mapping Maroon Cartographies: GIS and Anticolonial Modeling in St. Croix
Dunnavant, J. P., Wernke, S. A., & Kohut, L. E. (2023) · ACME · doi:10.7202/1107310ar · Cited by 12
Self-citationThinking through the tool: collaborative archaeological bodywork in immersive virtual reality
Morrow, G. S., & Wernke, S. A. (2023) · Virtual Archaeology Review · doi:10.4995/var.2024.19806 · Cited by 10
Self-citationParadigm or Practice? Situating GIS in Contemporary Archaeological Method and Theory
Ullah, I. I. T., Clow, Z., & Meling, J. (2023) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-023-09638-1 · Cited by 10
Space Analysis in Palaeolithic Cave Art: Towards a Multidisciplinary and Integrated Approach
Spaey, O., Maidagán, D. G., & Irurtzun, A. (2024) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-024-09655-8 · Cited by 10
Saintenoy, T., Llobera, M., Thiéry, N. M., Crespo Fernández, M., Fábrega-Álvarez, P., & Santos, R. (2025) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2024.106125 · Cited by 9
Computing and testing extensive total viewsheds: a case of prehistoric burial mounds in Bohemia
Kuna, M., Novák, D., Rášová, A., Bucha, B., Machová, B., Havlice, J., John, J., & Chvojka, O. (2022) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2022.105596 · Cited by 9
Kelly, D. R., Clark, M. M., Palace, M., & Howey, M. C. L. (2023) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2022.105710 · Cited by 9
Mapping the GIS Landscape: Introducing “Beyond (within, through) the Grid”
Warner-Smith, A. L. (2020) · International Journal of Historical Archaeology · doi:10.1007/s10761-019-00527-6 · Cited by 7
Haughton, M. (2023) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-023-09603-y · Cited by 6
Hincks, S., & Johnston, R. (2022) · Journal of Anthropological Archaeology · doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2022.101423 · Cited by 6
Sand-Eriksen, A. (2023) · Norwegian Archaeological Review · doi:10.1080/00293652.2023.2262463 · Cited by 5
Richards-Rissetto, H., Primeau, K. E., Witt, D. E., & Goodwin, G. (2023) · Quantitative methods in the humanities and social sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-23133-9_9 · Cited by 5
12 Pathways through the Archaeology of Neighborhoods
Wernke, S. A. (2019) · Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association · doi:10.1111/apaa.12121 · Cited by 4
Self-citationMetheny, K. B. (2022) · Historical Archaeology · doi:10.1007/s41636-022-00341-8 · Cited by 4
Cortez, S. C., Mogrovejo, D., & Moralejo, R. A. (2024) · Antípoda Revista de Antropología y Arqueología · doi:10.7440/antipoda55.2024.01 · Cited by 4
An urban image in an urbanized landscape: measuring the visual impact of Tibur's amphitheater
Notarian, M. (2024) · Journal of Roman Archaeology · doi:10.1017/s1047759424000059 · Cited by 3
Mei, L. (2020) · Architecture and the Built Environment · doi:10.59490/abe.2020.20.5403 · Cited by 3
Landscapes of (dis)connection: modelling connectivity in west samos with least cost path analysis
Loy, M. (2025) · Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105144 · Cited by 3
Modeling Marronage: GIS Heuristics of Refuge Affordances in Colonial St. Croix
Kohut, L. E., Wernke, S. A., & Dunnavant, J. (2025) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-024-09680-7 · Cited by 2
Self-citationA song of earth and water: Burial caves as sacred and animated Southern Jê deathscapes in Brazil
de Lima, L. P., Klökler, D., & Gaspar, M. (2024) · Journal of Anthropological Archaeology · doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2024.101646 · Cited by 2
Frozen motion: Contextualizing wheel rut data within and beyond the Pompeiian street grid
Picker-Kille, D. (2025) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2025.106155 · Cited by 2
EKOLOJİK YAKLAŞIMLI ÇEVRE-DAVRANIŞ ARAŞTIRMALARININ KONULAR VE TEKNİKLER AÇISINDAN İÇERİK ANALİZİ
Mumcu, S., Düzenli, T., & Eren, E. T. (2019) · Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi · doi:10.16953/deusosbil.428613 · Cited by 2
The visual landscape of rock art in Qeydu Valley in Teymare in the Central Iranian Plateau
Karimi, E. (2024) · Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage · doi:10.1016/j.daach.2024.e00358 · Cited by 2
Networks of Inequality: Access to Water in Roman Pompeii
Simelius, S. (2024) · Journal of Computer Applications in Archaeology · doi:10.5334/jcaa.116 · Cited by 2
Murphy, B., Salazar, D., Hayashida, F., Troncoso, A., & Fábrega‐Álvarez, P. (2024) · Journal of Anthropological Archaeology · doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2024.101623 · Cited by 1
sUAS Multispectral Survey of the Historical Landscape of Chateau de Balleroy, Normandy, France
Carroll, J. W. (2020) · International Journal of Applied Geospatial Research · doi:10.4018/ijagr.2020100104
Jennings, J., Wernke, S. A., Berquist, S., Gonzalez-Macqueen, F., Robbins, N. N., Spence-Morrow, G., & Zimmer-Dauphinee, J. R. (2024) · Chungara · doi:10.4067/s0717-73562024005000101
Self-citationConrad, C., & Mader, C. (2024) · Boletín de Arqueología PUCP · doi:10.18800/boletindearqueologiapucp.202402.003
(2023) · OAPEN (The OAPEN Foundation)
Lynch, J., Parcero-Oubiña, C., & Fábrega-Álvarez, P. (2020) · Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage · doi:10.1016/j.daach.2020.e00145 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Wernke, S. A., Kohut, L. E., & Traslaviña, A.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Tougaloo College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wernke, Steven A.
- Venue
- Journal of Archaeological Science
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-08
- Volume
- 84
- Pages
- 22-39
- ISSN
- 0305-4403 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2625156863
- Cited by
- 43
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 7.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Archaeological Science (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Vanderbilt University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Urban Studies › Urban Design and Spatial Analysis
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geology › 3D Surveying and Cultural Heritage
- Keywords
- colonial urbanism, movement simulation, visual experience, affordances, visibility analysis, spatial network analysis, walking model, 3D modeling, Viceroyalty of Peru, settlement layout, highland Peru, community formation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review