D-cycloserine enhancement of exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder depends on the success of exposure sessions
Open accessAbstract
Objective The evidence for the efficacy of D-cycloserine (DCS) for augmenting cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety disorders has been mixed. Guided by preclinical research and initial findings from a small-scale study involving humans, we tested the hypothesis that DCS enhancement of exposure therapy would be specific to successful exposure sessions. Method Medication-free adults with generalized social anxiety disorder (N = 145) received 50 mg of DCS or placebo 1 h before each of 5 exposure sessions that were part of a standardized 12-session group CBT protocol. Participants provided fear ratings at the beginning and just before the end of exposure exercises. Independent raters, blind to group assignment, administered the clinical global impression improvement and severity scales at each session and at posttreatment. Results Mixed-effects analyses revealed that, among patients who reported low fear at the end of an exposure session, those who had received DCS evidenced significantly greater clinical improvement at the next session, relative to those who had received placebo. In contrast, when exposure end fear was high, patients receiving DCS exhibited less clinical improvement at the following session than patients receiving placebo. Similarly, patients who had received DCS evidenced lower clinical severity at posttreatment, relative to patients who had received placebo, only when their average end fear for medication-augmented sessions had been in the low to moderate range. Finally, these moderating effects of exposure success as indexed by end fear were not better accounted for by within-session extinction. Conclusions The efficacy of DCS for augmenting exposure-based CBT depends on the success of exposure sessions. These findings may help guide the development of an algorithm for the effective use of DCS for augmenting exposure-based CBT. Trial registry http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov, ID# NCT00633984, http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00633984.
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D-cycloserine (DCS) enhances the acquisition of the extinction memory.
“administration of the NMDAR partial agonist D-cycloserine (DCS) enhances the acquisition of the extinction memory”
From Retrieval-Dependent Mechanisms Affecting Emotional Memory Persistence: Reconsolidation, Extinction, and the Space in Between (2020) · cites this paper as Smits et al., 2013
The Discussion explicitly distinguishes the two processes: it says DCS appears to aid consolidation or retention of fear extinction rather than extinction learning within a session. Its clinical findings also make DCS benefit conditional on exposure sessions ending with low fear, not a general enhancement of acquisition. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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“The efficacy of D-cycloserine (DCS) for enhancing exposure therapy has been variable across these studies, with several evidencing strong augmentative effects of DCS (Guastella et al., 2008; Hofmann et al., 2006; Otto et al., 2010; Ressler et al., 2004), and several showing either relatively weak effects (Kushner et a…”
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“This is similar to previous studies from our group (e.g., Hofmann, 2004; Hofmann et al.2006), which have shown”
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“Among other therapeutic change processes that are potentially important to exposure therapy outcome, increased implementation of emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal may be important to consider in future studies that aim to enhance the understanding of why DCS may only exert positive effects wh…”
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“This is similar to previous studies from our group (e.g., Hofmann, 2004; Hofmann et al.2006), which have shown”
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“Consistent with the findings from animal studies (Bouton et al., 2008;Weber et al., 2007), the result of this reanalysis showed that DCS facilitated clinical improvement when patients ended their previous exposure session with low fear levels, and, conversely, inhibited clinical improvement when…”
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Self-citationEffects of D-cycloserine on extinction of learned fear to an olfactory cue
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“The original analyses revealed that patients receiving 50 mg of DCS administered following each of two sessions of 30 min of hierarchical virtual reality exposure did not evidence better clinical outcomes than patients receiving identical exposure combined with placebo (Tart et al., 2013).”
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“These findings may help guide the development of an algorithm for the effective use of DCS for augmenting exposure-based CBT. Trial registry: http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov, ID# NCT00633984, http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/ NCT00633984.”
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“In our reanalysis of these findings (Smits et al., 2013b), we tested whether the effects of DCS administration on subsequent clinical improvement would be moderated by the relative success of the exposure session.”
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“conditions, is consistent with the increasing evidence that d-cycloserine’s clinical effect may be best observed through enhancing consolidation of extinction gains made between sessions (10, 14, 24, 25, 35) and preventing return of symptoms after treatment.”
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“[7] In this study, we observed that, despite the lack of overall DCS effects, postsession DCS administration did augment exposure sessions if the exposure sessions were successful.[10] More specifically, we found that relative to patients receiving placebo, patients receiving DCS evidenced significantly greater clinic…”
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“…to the acute effectiveness of the exposure session prior to which the DCS was administered (Smits et al., 2013b), current studies are examining the specific variables associated with DCS and therapy that will be predictive of successful outcomes (Smits et al., 2013a; de Kleine et al., 2014).”
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“As other literature with adults suggests that effects of DCS may be contingent on successful exposure processes (Smits et al., 2013, 2013; Telch et al., 2014), future studies may wish to examine this in youth with OCD.”
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Yohimbine Enhancement of Exposure Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Smits, J. A. J., Rosenfield, D., Davis, M. L., Julian, K., Handelsman, P. R., Otto, M. W., Tuerk, P., Shiekh, M., Rosenfield, B., Hofmann, S. G., et al. (2014) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.10.008 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Specifically, greater relative benefit of yohimbine augmentation was evident for those patients completing their exposure session with low fear, replicating similar findings reported for DCS (9,22).”
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d-Cycloserine Augmentation of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: an Update
Hofmann, S. G., Otto, M. W., Pollack, M. H., & Smits, J. A. J. (2014) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0532-2 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationd-Cycloserine augmentation of cognitive remediation in schizophrenia
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“This interpretation is supported by recent studies of exposure therapy for anxiety, which demonstrate that DCS improves memory only when significant within-session learning is achieved (Smits et al., 2013a,b).”
ResultEnhancement of psychosocial treatment with D-cycloserine: Models, moderators, and future directions
Otto, M. W., Kredlow, M. A., Smits, J. A. J., Hofmann, S. G., Tolin, D. F., de Kleine, R. A., van Minnen, A., Evins, A. E., & Pollack, M. H. (2016) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.09.007 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“In the context of these faltering estimates of the DCS augmentation efficacy, however, important moderators were discovered (20, 21), enough so that guidance on judicious use of DCS for augmentation appears to be at hand.”
BackgroundSelf-citationRANDOMIZED TRIAL OF D-CYCLOSERINE ENHANCEMENT OF COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY FOR PANIC DISORDER
Otto, M. W., Pollack, M. H., Dowd, S. M., Hofmann, S. G., Pearlson, G. D., Szuhany, K. L., Gueorguieva, R. V., Krystal, J. H., Simon, N. M., & Tolin, D. F. (2016) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22531 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
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Memory as a new therapeutic target
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“Those approaches have been investigated as pharmacotherapies that increase fear extinction, thus enhancing the efficacy of extinction-based psychotherapies [60,101,103].”
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Rief, W., Asmundson, G. J. G., Bryant, R. A., Clark, D. M., Ehlers, A., Holmes, E. A., McNally, R. J., Neufeld, C. B., Wilhelm, S., Jaroszewski, A. C., et al. (2024) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102417 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
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High cortisol awakening response and cortisol levels moderate exposure-based psychotherapy success
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“In this context, the use of DCS during exposure sessions has shown a positive effect (Guastella et al., 2008; Otto et al., 2010), a negative effect (Smits et al., 2013), or no effect in patients with anxiety disorders (de Kleine et al., 2012).”
D-cycloserine to enhance extinction of cue-elicited craving for alcohol: a translational approach
MacKillop, J., Few, L. R., Stojek, M. M., Murphy, C. M., Malutinok, S. F., Johnson, F. T., Hofmann, S. G., McGeary, J. E., Swift, R. M., & Monti, P. M. (2015) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2015.41 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
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“A comprehensive understanding of these intricate interactions holds great promise in addressing psychiatric disorders related to stress [181].”
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Crombie, K. M., Adams, T. G., Dunsmoor, J. E., Greenwood, B. N., Smits, J. A. J., Nemeroff, C. B., & Cisler, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2023.102680 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
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“…et al., 2010; Otto et al., 2010) in youths (Storch et al., 2010; Farrell et al., 2013) and adults (Wilhelm et al., 2008; Andersson et al., 2015), as well as in the treatment of non-OCD–related anxiety (Ressler et al., 2004; Hofmann et al., 2006; Guastella et al., 2008; Smits et al., 2013a,b).”
BackgroundL-DOPA improves extinction memory retrieval after successful fear extinction
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Hypoventilation Therapy Alleviates Panic by Repeated Induction of Dyspnea
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“(37) found that patients who reported high fear at the end of a social anxiety exposure session, and had received D-cycloserine prior to session, showed significantly lower clinical improvement at the next session.”
BackgroundSelf-citationMechanisms of Change in Exposure Therapy for Anxiety and Related Disorders: A Research Agenda
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“Indeed, examination of separate measures in the verbal/cognitive realm—self-report of fear (SUDS) versus expectancy— reveals that both have had predictive successes and failures (e.g., Pittig et al., 2016; Smits et al., 2013).”
Self-citationde Kleine, R. A., Hendriks, G., Smits, J. A. J., Broekman, T. G., & van Minnen, A. (2013) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.10.008 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Attempting to replicate and extend the findings reported by Smits et al. (2013a) we examined the potential prescriptive effects of personality traits, while also considering and controlling for demographic and clinical characteristics.”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationStojek, M. M., McSweeney, L. B., & Rauch, S. A. M. (2018) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00281 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
D-CYCLOSERINE ENHANCES GENERALIZATION OF FEAR EXTINCTION IN CHILDREN
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“in adults.[28, 29] Furthermore, the superior performance of the DCS group on Assessment B may be due in part to the exposure they received on Assessment A.”
Backgroundde Kleine, R. A., Smits, J. A. J., Hendriks, G., Becker, E. S., & van Minnen, A. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.06.005 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationDose Timing of D -Cycloserine to Augment Exposure Therapy for Social Anxiety Disorder
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d-Cycloserine facilitates extinction learning and enhances extinction-related brain activation
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Neuroenhancement of Exposure Therapy in Anxiety Disorders
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“Overall, DCS was shown to have the most empirical support, yet the timing of the optimal DCS administration remains uncertain [17].”
Self-citationHofmann, S. G., Carpenter, J. K., Otto, M. W., Rosenfield, D., Smits, J. A. J., & Pollack, M. H. (2015) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2015.06.015 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationMemory creation and modification: Enhancing the treatment of psychological disorders.
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“As an example, the current success of pharmacological-based treatments (such as DCS) is often contingent upon concurrent exposure therapy (Smits et al., 2013).”
D-cycloserine in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder
Baker, J., Cates, M. E., & Luthin, D. R. (2017) · Mental Health Clinician · doi:10.9740/mhc.2017.03.088 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Another consideration is that recent studies in anxiety states suggest that the quality of exposure therapy session is crucial in the success of DCS as evidenced by improvement with successful exposure therapy plus DCS and detriment with unsuccessful exposure therapy plus DCS.(23,24)”
BackgroundInfluentialUpdate on the efficacy of pharmacotherapy for social anxiety disorder: a meta-analysis
Davis, M. L., Smits, J. A. J., & Hofmann, S. G. (2014) · Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1517/14656566.2014.955472 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationEnriching CBT by Neuroscience: Novel Avenues to Achieve Personalized Treatments
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Does exercise augment operant and Pavlovian extinction: A meta-analysis
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D-Serine in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: New Advances
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“However, the efficacy of DCS has been variable across studies, with several evidencing strong augmentative effects and several showing either relatively weak or no effects [128].”
BackgroundHofmeijer-Sevink, M. K., Duits, P., Rijkeboer, M. M., Hoogendoorn, A. W., van Megen, H. J. G. M., Vulink, N. C. C., Denys, D. A. J. P., van den Hout, M., van Balkom, A. J. L. M., & Cath, D. C. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000000757 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“To test whether DCS might only augment sessions during which anxiety reduction has appeared, 2 RCTs have been reanalyzed by Smits et al.(40,41) In the first placebo-controlled study, 29 patients with height phobia received DCS or placebo directly after two 30-minute virtual reality exposure sessions.”
Zaizar, E. D., Gonzalez-Lima, F., & Telch, M. J. (2018) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2018.07.012 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
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Hormonal, reproductive, and behavioural predictors of fear extinction recall in female rats
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Sudden gains in internet-based cognitive behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder
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Does fear reduction predict treatment response to exposure for social anxiety disorder?
McGlade, A. L., Treanor, M., Kim, R., & Craske, M. G. (2022) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2022.101833 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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Advances in Psychopharmacology for Anxiety Disorders
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d-Cycloserine and estradiol enhance fear extinction in nulliparous but not primiparous female rats
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Otto, M. W., Pachas, G. N., Cather, C., Hoeppner, S. S., Moshier, S. J., Hearon, B. A., Ward, H. B., Laffer, A., Smits, J. A. J., & Evins, A. E. (2018) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2018.1476908 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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“[49] for individuals with social anxiety disorder.”
Looking Beyond Fear and Extinction Learning: Considering Novel Treatment Targets for Anxiety
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Effects of d -cycloserine on individual differences in relapse of fear
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“Similar findings have since been reported in clinical trials where the success of the exposure session determined whether DCS resulted in greater clinical improvement or not (Smits et al., 2013b; Tart et al., 2013).”
d-Cycloserine-Augmented Behavior Therapy for Body Dysmorphic Disorder: A Preliminary Efficacy Trial
Weingarden, H. M., Mothi, S. S., Ladis, I., Hoeppner, S. S., Reese, H. E., Timpano, K. R., Siev, J., Rasmussen, J. L., Ragan, J. D., Dougherty, D. D., et al. (2019) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-019-10015-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Enhancement Strategies
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A precision medicine approach to pharmacological adjuncts to extinction: A call to broaden research
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Molecular mechanisms of D-cycloserine in facilitating fear extinction: insights from RNAseq
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“2010), PTSD (Smits et al. 2013; de Kleine et al. 2012) and panic disorder (Otto et al.”
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“DCS treatment has also been used to augment exposure therapy (Smits et al., 2013), especially in patients with more severe post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (de Kleine et al., 2012), and a decrease in the rate of relapse was observed following DCS augmentation of exposure-based cognitive…”
MethodThe Nature and Treatment of Social Anxiety
Carpenter, J. K., Curtiss, J. E., & Hofmann, S. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118877142.ch5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationPost-extinction L-DOPA administration to reduce the return of fear in humansPreprint
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Pharmacological enhancement of fear extinction
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Mechanisms of Action in the Treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder
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Self-citationCombination Psychological and Pharmacological Treatments for Panic Disorder
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Self-citationExercise and Fear and Safety Learning
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“For example, in a study on patients with generalized social anxiety disorder, clinical improvement from one exposure therapy session to the next was enhanced if subjects reported low fear at the end of the session but not if they reported high fear (Smits et al., 2013).”
BackgroundLubin, R. E., Fitzgerald, H. E., Rosenfield, D., Carpenter, J. K., Papini, S., Dutcher, C. D., Dowd, S. M., Hofmann, S. G., Pollack, M. H., Smits, J. A. J., et al. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.06.008 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationSmits, J. A. J., Kauffman, B. Y., Lee-Furman, E., Zvolensky, M. J., Otto, M. W., Piper, M. E., Powers, M. B., & Rosenfield, D. (2016) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2016.03.011 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationEmpirical status of mechanisms of change.
Vrijsen, J. N., de Kleine, R. A., Becker, E. S., Wenzel, A. E., & Smits, J. A. J. (2021) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/0000218-004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationA Comparison between Psychosocial and Pharmacological Treatments
Powers, M. B., Kauffman, B. Y., Diamond, A., & Smits, J. A. J. (2014) · Social Anxiety · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394427-6.00026-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Smits, J. A. J., Rosenfield, D., Otto, M. W., Marques, L., Davis, M. L., Meuret, A. E., Simon, N. M., Pollack, M. H., & Hofmann, S. G.
- Affiliations
- Southern Methodist University (US)
- Boston University (US)
- Massachusetts General Hospital (US)
- Rush University Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hofmann, Stefan G.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Psychiatric Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-10
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1455-1461
- ISSN
- 0022-3956 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3747985
- OpenAlex
- W2157504515
- Cited by
- 114
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 20.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Psychiatric Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH075889, K23MH096029, R01MH078308)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- D-cycloserine, social anxiety disorder, exposure therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, drug augmentation, treatment response, treatment algorithm
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Antidepressive Agents, Anxiety Disorders, Cycloserine, Double-Blind Method, Fear, Female, Humans, Implosive Therapy, Male, Severity of Illness Index, Models, Statistical, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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