Cited by 839Personality Traits and PsychologyPsychological Testing and AssessmentSocial and Intergroup Psychology

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 82 of the 88 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Whole Trait Theory

Open access

Fleeson, William, Jayawickreme, Eranda·2015·Journal of Research in Personality

DOI 10.1016/j.jrp.2014.10.009PMC PMC4472377

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Personality researchers should modify models of traits to include mechanisms of differential reaction to situations. Whole Trait Theory does so via five main points. First, the descriptive side of traits should be conceptualized as density distributions of states. Second, it is important to provide an explanatory account of the Big 5 traits. Third, adding an explanatory account to the Big 5 creates two parts to traits, an explanatory part and a descriptive part, and these two parts should be recognized as separate entities that are joined into whole traits. Fourth, Whole Trait Theory proposes that the explanatory side of traits consists of social-cognitive mechanisms. Fifth, social-cognitive mechanisms that produce Big-5 states should be identified.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.jrp.2014.10.009

Cites

82 of 82 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research
Krueger, R. F., & Johnson, W. (2008) · Cited by 7,884
The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure
Goldberg, L. R. (1992) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.26 · Cited by 5,530 · cited 1×
“The trait approach, as instantiated in the Big 5/HEXACO model (Ashton & Lee, 2009; Costa & McCrae, 2006; DeYoung, Weisberg, Quilty, & Peterson, 2013; Goldberg, 1992; Johnson, 1997, Perugini & Gallucci, 1997; see also Wright et al., 2013), has made remarkable progress in identifying the content of…”
Method
Personality and Assessment
Madison, P., & Mischel, W. (1968) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421067 · Cited by 4,395 · cited 1×
“The social cognitive approach starts with the observation that trait manifestations appear to be inconsistent (Cervone, 2005; Hartshorne & May, 1928; Mischel, 1968).”
Background
A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure
Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.246 · Cited by 3,889 · cited 8×
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript competencies, self-regulatory plans, and goals (Allport, 1937; Mischel & Shoda, 1995; Mischel, 1973).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Personality: A Psychological Interpretation
Jenkins, J. G., & Allport, G. W. (1938) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1415717 · Cited by 3,215
Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality
Mischel, W. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0035002 · Cited by 3,181 · cited 6×
“Although the trait approach would allow for some variability in behavior, it does not appear to allow the high degree of variable responding required in the social-cognitive approach (Allport, 1937; Fleeson & Noftle, 2009; Mischel, 1973).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Power of Personality: The Comparative Validity of Personality Traits, Socioeconomic Status, and Cognitive Ability for Predicting Important Life Outcomes
Roberts, B. W., Kuncel, N. R., Shiner, R., Caspi, A., & Goldberg, L. R. (2007) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00047.x · Cited by 2,361
Personality and the Prediction of Consequential Outcomes
Ozer, D. J., & Benet‐Martínez, V. (2005) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190127 · Cited by 2,307 · cited 1×
“Traits matter to important outcomes (Duckworth, Weir, Tsukayama, & Kwok, 2012; Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006; Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007; Turiano, Chapman, Gruenewald, & Mroczek, 2013), and observers agree about Big 5 levels of targets (Vazire, 2010).”
Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion
Depue, R. A., & Collins, P. F. (1999) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x99002046 · Cited by 2,046
A new Big Five: Fundamental principles for an integrative science of personality.
McAdams, D. P., & Pals, J. L. (2006) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.3.204 · Cited by 1,992 · cited 1×
“Furthermore, although traits do a reasonable job of describing behavior and identity, even on that front they fall somewhat short (Kandler, Zimmerman, & McAdams, 2014; McAdams & Pals, 2006).”
Background

Show all 88 references

Research works printed but not linked: 1

Mischel, W., & Peake, P. K. (1982). Analyzing the construction of consistency in personality. Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 233–262).

Sorted by citations

Items 501–600 of 839

The Narcissism in Situations Framework: Person and Situation Effects on State NarcissismPreprint
Maaß, U., Lüdtke, O., & Ziegler, M. D. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/usg8k · Cited by 5
Distinguishing simple and residual consistency in functionally equivalent and non- equivalent situations: Evidence from experimental and observational longitudinal dataPreprint
Horstmann, K. T., Rauthmann, J. F., Sherman, R. A., & Ziegler, M. D. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/bcmyt · Cited by 4
Person-Situation Dynamics in Educational Contexts: A Self- and Other-Rated Experience Sampling Study of Teachers’ States, Traits, and SituationsPreprint
Abrahams, L., Rauthmann, J. F., & Fruyt, F. D. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/3rhdy · Cited by 3
Individual Differences in Contingencies Between Situation Characteristics and Personality StatesPreprint
Kuper, N., Breil, S. M., Horstmann, K. T., Roemer, L., Lischetzke, T., Sherman, R. A., Back, M. D., Denissen, J. J. A., & Rauthmann, J. F. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7phng · Cited by 4
Sexual Pleasure Matters – and How to Define and Assess It too. A Conceptual Framework of Sexual Pleasure and the Sexual Response.Preprint
Werner, M. A., Borgmann, M., & Laan, E. T. M. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/9a2nk · Cited by 4
“I’m so dumb and worthless right now”: Factors associated with heightened momentary self-criticism in daily lifePreprint
Veilleux, J. C., Clift, J. B., Brott, K. H., Warner, E. A., Schreiber, R. E., Henderson, H., & Shelton, D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2dcvf · Cited by 4
Using youth-specific approaches to illuminate character-well-being relations
Abbasi‐Asl, R., Yu, D. L., Hasse, A., Lerner, R. M., Tirrell, J. M., Dowling, E. M., Sim, A., Lerner, J. V., Zhang, R., Keces, N., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2025.2498053 · Cited by 3
“Beginning in the third decade of the 21 st century, whole trait theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Jayawickreme & Fleeson, 2017; Jayawickreme et al., 2014) – which posits that personality traits are best understood as distributions of personality states, capturing both an individual’s average…”
Narrative Agency and Communion as Predictors of Trait and State Self‐Esteem Dynamics
Guðmundsdóttir, G. R., de Moor, E. L., & Reitz, A. K. (2025) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.70000 · Cited by 3
Behavioral Tendencies of Happiness: A Person‐In‐Context Approach to Construct Measurement
Robinson, M. D., Irvin, R. L., Asad, M. R., Fereidouni, H., Rahier, L. L., & Lawrence, G. A. (2025) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.70011 · Cited by 3
Ten Concerns About Volitional Personality-Change Interventions—and How to Address Them
Haehner, P., Asselmann, E., Baumgardt, S., Brüggmann, L., Denissen, J. J. A., Harzer, C., Juchem, C. M., Krämer, M. D., Kuper, N., Puhlmann, L. M. C., et al. (2026) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916261466950 · Cited by 3
Individual differences in violent extremism
Obaidi, M., Bergh, R., Benningstad, N. C. G., & Dovidio, J. F. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-025-00509-y · Cited by 4
“Personality research distinguishes between state variability (immediate changes within an individual in response to new circumstances) and trait variability (consistent differences between individuals 274–276 ).”
Daily agreeableness and acculturation processes in ethnic/racial minority freshmen: The role of inter‐ethnic contact and perceived discrimination
Wu, Y., Xu, J., Shen, Y., Wang, Y., & Zheng, Y. (2023) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12889 · Cited by 3
Aesthetic Dispositions, Aesthetic Engagement, and Meaning in Life
Wilt, J. A., Exline, J. J., Schlegel, R. J., & Sherman, A. (2024) · Empirical Studies of the Arts · doi:10.1177/02762374241248117 · Cited by 3
“This rationale aligns with personality approaches that distinguish between states, which are dynamic and occur over shorter times, and traits, which represent aggregates of states (e.g., Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Wrzus & Roberts, 2017).”
Individual differences in escalation of commitment: a multi-level adaptive learning perspective
Wong, K. F. E., Kwong, J. Y. Y., & Yik, M. (2024) · Journal of Computational Social Science · doi:10.1007/s42001-024-00339-7 · Cited by 3
“…this framework in four dimensions of individual differences that represent the full range of understanding the dynamics of individual differences [13, 14], namely, (a) the origin of individual differences, (b) the emergence of individual differences, (c) the stability of individual differences,…”
A hierarchical trait and state model for decoding dyadic social interactions
Wu, Q., Nakauchi, S., Shehata, M., & Shinsuke Shimojo, A. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-95916-9 · Cited by 3
The Plot Thickens: Personality and Its Development
Lapsley, D. K. (2016) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000447251 · Cited by 3
“Whole trait theory, for example, views social cognitive mechanisms as the explanatory side of traits [Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015].”
Background
The double negative: Personality differentially predicts sensitivity to need support and thwarting, and subsequent behavioural response planning
Thomas, L. B., Fadeeva, A., & Oliver, E. J. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109767 · Cited by 3
Wisdom Once Gained Is Not Easily Lost: Implicit Theories About Wisdom and Age-Related Cognitive Declines
Barber, S. J., Kireeva, D., Seliger, J., & Jayawickreme, E. (2020) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igaa010 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Personality Affect Construal Theory
Thapa, S., Beck, E. D., & Tay, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108573887.004 · Cited by 3
Modelo predictivo de conducta de infidelidad sexual entre personas casadas
de la Rubia, J. M. (2020) · CienciaUAT · doi:10.29059/cienciauat.v15i1.1383 · Cited by 3
Personality Factors Predicting Cyberbullying and Online Harassment
Ildırım, E. (2020) · Advances in human resources management and organizational development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-4912-4.ch007 · Cited by 3
Personality Traits and Mental Disorders
Hakulinen, C. A., Jokela, M. M., Mika Kivimaki, B., & Elovainio, M. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.018 · Cited by 4
Anxiety, Depression and Cognitive Dysfunction
Eysenck, M. W., & Holmes, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.033 · Cited by 3
Ubiquitous computing for person-environment research: Opportunities, considerations, and future directions
Vaid, S. S., Abdullah, S., Thomaz, E., & Harari, G. M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819200-9.00020-x · Cited by 3
Intra-individual variability in personality: A methodological review
Ness, A. M., Foley, K. O., & Heggestad, E. D. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819200-9.00007-7 · Cited by 3
Personality at Work
Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N. R., & Moscoso, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.040 · Cited by 4
The psychological profile of group rhythmic gymnasts
Manos, M., & Popescu, L. (2019) · Discobolul – Physical Education, Sport and Kinetotherapy Journal · doi:10.35189/iphm.icpesk.2019.19 · Cited by 2
“Several theoretical frameworks of integrated personality have been developed so far (Cervone, 2004; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015), but empirical research is still in its early stages (Beckmann & Wood, 2017).”
Background
Survey and 10-Day Diary Data on Infant Nutrition, Development, and Home Learning Environment during the COVID-19 Pandemic from the LEARN-COVID Pilot Study
Reinelt, T., Frey, C., Oertel, R., Suppiger, D., & Natalucci, G. (2022) · Journal of Open Psychology Data · doi:10.5334/jopd.63 · Cited by 2
A closer look at the domain‐specific associations of openness with language achievement: Evidence on the role of intrinsic value from two large‐scale longitudinal studies
Meyer, J., Schmidt, F. T. C., Fleckenstein, J., & Köller, O. (2022) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12543 · Cited by 4
Leveraging the Experience Sampling Method to Study Meaning in Everyday Life
Heintzelman, S. J., & Mohideen, F. (2022) · Atlantis highlights in social sciences, education and humanities/Atlantis Highlights in Social Sciences, Education and Humanities · doi:10.2991/978-94-6463-096-1_4 · Cited by 3
The day-of-week (DOW) effect on liberalism-conservatism: Evidence from a large-scale online survey in China
Ye, S. S., So, J. J. M., Ng, T. K., & Ma, M. Z. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1074334 · Cited by 3
“According to the whole trait theory (Fleeson and Jayawickreme, 2015), behaviors are not only influenced by relatively stable traits, but also the momentary states and situational factors.”
Background
To Thine Own (Good and Bad) Self Be True? Trait-State Voluntary Work Behavior (Mis)Fit Influences Future Voluntary Work Behavior
Aitken, J. A., Keeler, K. R., Dalal, R. S., & Kriz, S. (2023) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-023-09892-w · Cited by 4
“…as the mean of the temporal density distribution (for seminal work in the personality and social psychology literature, see Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; for empirical examples in organizational journals, see Green et al., 2019; Matta et al., 2017; Matta et al., 2020).”
Downscaling with benefits: A road forward for capturing intra-individual variations in personality
Schock, A.-K., Hausinger, T., & Pletzer, B. A. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112636 · Cited by 3
Validity evidence for personality scores from algorithms trained on low‐stakes verbal data and applied to high‐stakes interviews
Stevenor, B. A., Hickman, L., Zickar, M. J., Wimbush, F., & Beck, W. (2024) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12480 · Cited by 5
Do social engagement skills exist and matter beyond personality facet traits and vocational interests? A generalization study across six countries
Roemer, L., Rammstedt, B., & Lechner, C. M. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102522 · Cited by 3
Response to the critiques (and encouragements) on our critique of motivation constructs
Murayama, K., & Jach, H. K. (2025) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x24001353 · Cited by 3
Honesty as truthfulness: New trait and state measures of truthfulness to advance research and theorizing on when and why people are honest
Reynolds, C. J., Jayawickreme, E., Wheat, R., Stokes, E., Santos, C., Fleeson, W., & Furr, R. M. (2025) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070251338199 · Cited by 5
“Whole Trait Theory (WTT; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015, 2021) is one such dynamic theory that also fosters engagement with the philosophical literature on virtue and character development and has emerged as an important model of moral traits (Doris, 2022; Jeffrey & Beary, 2023; Wright et al., 2021).”
Self-citation
Models of Personality Structure
Raad, B. D., & Barelds, D. P. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.012 · Cited by 4
Cognitive Processes and Models
Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.028 · Cited by 5
Integrative processes and personality coherence across levels of functioning
Fournier, M. A. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813995-0.00017-0 · Cited by 4
Basic Needs, Goals and Motivation
Szalma, J. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.030 · Cited by 3
Energy and Personality: A Bridge between Physics and Psychology
Caselles, A., Micó, J. C., & Amigó, S. (2021) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math9121339 · Cited by 3
Personality in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Dragūns, J. G., & Tanaka‐Matsumi, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.037 · Cited by 4
Body mass is linked with a broad range of personality nuances, but especially those with behavioral content: A multi-sample exploration
Arumäe, K., Vainik, U., & Mõttus, R. (2022) · Personality Science · doi:10.5964/ps.7583 · Cited by 3
“If personality traits represent the frequency of trait-relevant expressions (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015) such as certain kinds of behav iors, the current results are consistent with the view that personality traits can increase body weight through, for instance, altering the frequency of…”
Result
Connections to, Implications of, and Directions for a Cybernetic Theory of Psychopathology
Hopwood, C. J., & Schwaba, T. (2018) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2018.1513683 · Cited by 2
“…and the recent emphasis among basic personality psychologists on dynamic and relatively proximal processes hypothesized to give rise to betweenand within-person personality variation (e.g., Back et al., 2011; Baumert et al., 2017; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Roberts, 2018; Wrzus & Roberts, 2017).”
Background
Modeling Dynamic Personality Theories in a Continuous-time Framework: An IllustrationPreprint
Hecht, M., Horstmann, K. T., Arnold, M., Sherman, R. A., & Voelkle, M. C. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q97pz · Cited by 3
Personal Projects
Little, B. R., & Balsari‐Palsule, S. (2020) · The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1002/9781119547143.ch51 · Cited by 3
Assessing Life Satisfaction in Everyday Life: An Example of Scale Development for Ecological Momentary AssessmentPreprint
Rein, M. T., Vogelsmeier, L. V. D. E., & Bolsinova, M. A. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/47bry · Cited by 4
How to measure and model personality traits in everyday life: A qualitative analysis of 300 big five personality itemsPreprint
Andresen, P. K., Schuurman, N. K., & Hamaker, E. L. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/nqseu · Cited by 3
Reply: The PHIOMM Framework for Implementing Mindfulness in Public Health, With Groundwork
Oman, D. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02553-4 · Cited by 4
Individual Differences in Within-Person Variability in Personality Positively Predict Economic Gains and Satisfaction in Negotiations
Çelik, P., Storme, M., & Myszkowski, N. (2022) · Group Decision and Negotiation · doi:10.1007/s10726-022-09778-x · Cited by 2
“This could explain why classic and broad personality traits – which describe average behavioral tendencies across situations (Fleeson 2004; Fleeson and Jayawickreme 2015) – have limited predictive value for negotiation outcomes (Sharma et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Primary affective systems and personality: Disentangling the within‐person reciprocal relationships
Ion, A. (2023) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12908 · Cited by 2
State Tolerance of Ambiguity Drives Performance and Well-Being Outcomes Within Project Managers: Evidence from a Five-Wave Longitudinal Study
O'Connor, P. J., Wiewiora, A. M., & Spark, A. (2024) · Project Management Journal · doi:10.1177/87569728241299290 · Cited by 2
“Consistent with theoretical perspectives of within-person variation (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015, 2021), we expect that the effects of state Tolerance of Ambiguity will be signi ﬁ cant, even when controlling for the effects of trait Tolerance of Ambiguity (i.e., we believe that variation in…”
Influential
Introversion in Leaders: Role-Congruent Leader Behavior and Thriving in Daily Working Life
Schmidbauer, J., Niessen, C., Spark, A., O'Connor, P. J., & Jimmieson, N. L. (2025) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/00218863251342832 · Cited by 2
“Traits are de ﬁ ned as density distributions of states, with introversion characterized by a distribution centered toward the introverted end of the extraversion continuum (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
The envy-contempt spiral: affective self-regulation in grandiose narcissism
Raftopoulos, A., & Unterrainer, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1620201 · Cited by 2
“These approaches focus on processes that explain personality dynamics (e.g., 18, 70).”
Beyond Tech: The Human Element in Industry 5.0 Projects
Santos, J. M. R. C. A., Freitas, F. S., & Fernandes, G. (2025) · Project Management Journal · doi:10.1177/87569728251349774 · Cited by 3
“…being the predominant theoretical framework for understanding personality structure and individual differences (Langston & Sykes, 1997; McCrae, 1999), the Big Five model has been shown not to give a thorough explanation of how individual traits manifest in behaviors (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Personality predicts internalizing symptoms and quality of life in police cadets: a comparison of artificial intelligence and parametric approaches
Buades‐Rotger, M., Catena, A. M., Recio, G., Cano-Gallent, M., Maymí, J. N. I., Masip, A. F., & Gallardo‐Pujol, D. (2025) · Health & Justice · doi:10.1186/s40352-025-00351-7 · Cited by 3
Behavioral tendencies of hostility: A new approach to personality assessment based on person-in-context units
Vohra, P., Irvin, R. L., Asad, M. R., & Robinson, M. D. (2025) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2025.104672 · Cited by 2
Examining the Construct Validity of the Super Brief-Pathological Narcissism Inventory to Assess Narcissistic States in Daily Life
Dowgwillo, E. A., & Pincus, A. L. (2025) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2025.2584681 · Cited by 2
“Together, these findings not only provide support for the construct validity of SB-PNI scores but also align with broader trait theories that suggest that trait variables influence our state experiences (Allport, 1937; Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Relative deprivation and forgiveness among Chinese college students: a moderated mediation model of ego depletion and psychological capital
Li, F., Mao, H., Zhang, S., & Lin, X. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03806-6 · Cited by 2
“Based on the state-trait continuum theory [55], whole trait theory [68], and the cognitive-affective personality system model [69], this study positioned all variables at the level of relatively stable individual characteristics.”
Stress Generation Across Hours, Days, and 1 Month
Haehner, P., Schellenberg, L., Krämer, M. D., Wright, A. J., Bleidorn, W., & Hopwood, C. J. (2026) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026261471782 · Cited by 2
Narrative Identity in the Social World
McLean, K. C., Syed, M., Haraldsson, K. G., & Lowe, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.035 · Cited by 2
Personality and Crime
Lynam, D. R., Vize, C. E., & Miller, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.043 · Cited by 2
Traits and Dynamic Processes
Jayawickreme, E., & Zachry, C. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.032 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
The Role of Individual Cultural Values in Personal Innovativeness
Rathnayake, N. D. N. B. (2021) · Wayamba Journal of Management · doi:10.4038/wjm.v12i1.7515 · Cited by 2
ANALYSIS OF DANIEL PLAINVIEW’S CHARACTER TRAITS IN THE MOVIE “THERE WILL BE BLOOD” BY PAUL THOMAS ANDERSON
Murtadho, A. M., Supriatna, E., & Suhendar, S. (2021) · JELL (Journal of English Language and Literature) STIBA-IEC Jakarta · doi:10.37110/jell.v6i2.127 · Cited by 2
“For example: Public speaking anxiety, impatience while waiting in line, etc. (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Background
Workplace coaching: testing whether personality traits and their ABCD components predict authentic self-development via affect balance
Erdös, T., Wilt, J. A., & Tichelmann, M. (2022) · Journal of Management Development · doi:10.1108/jmd-02-2022-0034 · Cited by 4
Personality dynamics: The integration of process and trait
Wu, F., & Yueqin, H. U. (2023) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2023.01269 · Cited by 2
Dynamic Patterns of Personality States, Affect and Goal Pursuit Before and During an Exercise Intervention: A Series of N-of-1 Trials Combined with Ecological Momentary Assessments
Kingsbury, C., & Bernard, P. (2023) · Health Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.5334/hpb.43 · Cited by 2
Personality self-representation change in circumstances of “goal — affordance” incongruity and situational opportunities
Мамаева-Найлз, В. Д. (2023) · Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University Psychology · doi:10.21638/spbu16.2023.306 · Cited by 2
Looking at self-control development in adolescence through dynamic systems concepts: An agent-based modeling approach
Mousavi, S. Z., Borhani, K., Gharibzadeh, S., & Bakouie, F. (2023) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2023.101116 · Cited by 3
Connecting the Dots of Creativity and Curiosity: A Weekly Diary Examination Using Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling
Zampetakis, L. A. (2024) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.1500 · Cited by 2
The momentary relationship between physical activity behaviour and mental well-being of vocational education and training students
Kirschner, M., Golsteijn, R. H. J., van Tuijl, P., van den Broek, L., Savelberg, H. H. C. M., & de Groot, R. H. M. (2024) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2024.100636 · Cited by 2
Impulsivity, Digital Maturity, and Morality of Pakistani TikTok Users
Gulzar, T., Nazir, A., Mehmood, H., & Noureen, A. (2024) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/2024/6002586 · Cited by 7
“In the context of morality, whole trait theory states that people have enduring traits, which include empathy or a dedication to honesty, which can a ﬀ ect how they make moral decisions [20].”
Is it all in the eye of the beholder? Examining the affective consequences of direct and indirect measures of counterdispositional extraversion
Kuijpers, E., Wille, B., Vossen, J., & Hofmans, J. (2025) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070241309491 · Cited by 3
“…models that capture within-person variability, or ﬂ uctuations around one ’ s baseline (e.g., TESSERA model, Wrzus & Roberts, 2017; Whole Trait theory, Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; DATA model, Woods et al., 2019), the PersDyn model is especially relevant for our purpose because it stresses the…”
Influential
Measuring personality Traits:Simulations Exploring (Mis)Alignment between methods and measurands
Durkee, P. K. (2025) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2025.104601 · Cited by 2
Evaluating the predictive validity of behavioral signatures in situational judgment tests
Leyens, T., Mussel, P., Hewig, J. S., & Hofmans, J. (2025) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2025.104604 · Cited by 2
Extraversion’s link to reward sensitivity: evidence from an emotion dynamics task
Robinson, M. D., Asad, M. R., Irvin, R. L., Fereidouni, H., & Talabad, P. Z. (2025) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-025-10131-3 · Cited by 2
“The explanatory approach to personality seeks to identify mechanisms, which are often motivational in nature (Per - vin, 1994 ; Watson, 2000 ), that link a personality trait to its state-related manifestations (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015 ; Hampson, 2012 ).”
Revisiting the IPIP-NEO personality hierarchy with taxonomic graph analysis
Samo, A., Garrido, L. E., Abad, F. J., Golino, H. F., McAbee, S. T., & Christensen, A. P. (2025) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070251352590 · Cited by 3
“…the pursuit of goals (Conscientiousness) that emerges from low emotional volatility (Neuroticism), and an orientation toward exploring novel internal (Openness to Experience) and external (Sociability) states in the pursuit of goals, respectively (DeYoung, 2006, 2015; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Beyond the text: Voice as a stable marker of self-esteem
Zang, X., Wang, S., & Yang, J. (2025) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2025.104636 · Cited by 2
Measured but Not Induced Perspective-taking Predicts Success in Coalition Formation
Cantiani, A., van Beest, I., & Erle, T. M. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251349706 · Cited by 2
“According to Whole Trait Theory, people differ in their base-line tendency to produce such states.”
Influential
Moving from traits to states: Examining the bidirectional day-level associations between personality states and sleep characteristics
Hisler, G. C., Križan, Z., Manuck, S. B., Marsland, A. L., Hasler, B. P., & Wright, A. G. (2025) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070251408107 · Cited by 2
“Though personality states vary across time, a person ’ s mean level and distribution of these states are thought to compose their trait levels (DeYoung, 2015; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Perspectives and Advances in Personality
Coulacoglou, C., & Saklofske, D. H. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802219-1.00009-2 · Cited by 4
The Bingah scale: A development of the happiness measurement scale in the Sundanese
Augustiya, T., Lestari, A., Budiman, H., Maharani, R. S., & Anggraini, M. (2020) · Jurnal Psikologi Islam dan Budaya · doi:10.15575/jpib.v3i1.6478 · Cited by 2
“Peneliti menggunakan metode kuantitatif, dimana data yang tersaji berisi angka-angka dan 64 JPIB : Jurnal Psikologi Islam dan Budaya, April 2020, Vol.3 No.1 hasil pengolahan datanya menggunakan program-program statistika (Baumert dkk., 2017; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2014).”
Background
A Review of Quantitative Methods to Measure Workplace Affect
Yang, L., McMahon, K., & Zhen, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108573887.007 · Cited by 2
The rise and reach of humility in clinical supervision: reactions to McMahon (2020), Jones and Branco (2020), Gutierrez et al. (2020), and Beinart (2020)
Watkins, C. E., Jr. (2020) · The Clinical Supervisor · doi:10.1080/07325223.2020.1830459 · Cited by 3
Attachment Theory
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.020 · Cited by 4
Individual differences in relational body image: Within-person variability predicts maladaptive trait body image
Waring, S. V., Sharpinskyi, K., & Kelly, A. C. (2022) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.08.005 · Cited by 4
PARENTAL ROLE ORIENTATION’S INFLUENCE ON CHILDREN’S PERSONALITY FORMATION
Meng, Z., Luen, L. C., & Abidin, N. H. Z. (2023) · International Journal of Education & Technology · doi:10.59021/ijetech.v1i3.22 · Cited by 2
“Fleeson & Jayawickreme’s personality trait theory explains the formation of personality through traits, where a list of personality traits can be used to describe individuals and explain the reasons for trait formation through external behaviour (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Background
The framework for creating a psychological assessment tool based on interactive storytelling
Prys, M., Różewski, P., & Ziegler, M. D. (2019) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2019.09.395 · Cited by 2
Models of Physical Health and Personality
Heilmayr, D., & Friedman, H. S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.019 · Cited by 2
Primal world beliefs correlate strongly but differentially with character strengthsPreprint
Stahlmann, A. G., & Ruch, W. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qv2bp · Cited by 2
Dynamic patterns of personality states, affects and goal pursuit before and during an exercise intervention: a series of N-of-1 trials combined with ecological momentary assessmentsPreprint
Kingsbury, C., & Bernard, P. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zm39x · Cited by 2
State/Trait Interactions
Schmitt, M., & Blum, G. S. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_1922-1 · Cited by 2
Stability and Change in Dispositional Envy: Longitudinal Evidence on Envy as a Stable TraitPreprint
Erz, E., & Rentzsch, K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/enyw2 · Cited by 2
Narcissistic Status Pursuit in Everyday Social Life: A Within-Person Process Approach to the Behavioral and Emotional Dynamics of NarcissismPreprint
Kroencke, L., Kuper, N., Mota, S., Utesch, K., Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Back, M. D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/sz2jh · Cited by 2
The Structure of Self-Related Core BeliefsPreprint
Mussel, P. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ky4vu · Cited by 2
Theses for a metatheory of personality
Konstabel, K. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.003 · Cited by 1
Just because it’s dark doesn’t mean that we can’t go there
Harms, P. D., Wood, D., & DeSimone, J. A. (2019) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1017/iop.2019.40 · Cited by 1
¿Psicólogos y psicólogas sesgados? Sesgos de confirmación y representatividad en estudiantes universitarios de psicología
Murillo, I. P., Arroyo-Zúñiga, D., & Paniagua, A. A. (2022) · Wimb Lu · doi:10.15517/wl.v17i2.52724 · Cited by 1

Authors: Fleeson, W., & Jayawickreme, E.
Affiliations: Wake Forest University (US)
Corresponding author: Fleeson, William
ORCID: Fleeson, William
Jayawickreme, Eranda
Venue: Journal of Research in Personality
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2015-06
Volume: 56
Pages: 82-92
ISSN: 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2014.10.009
PMC: PMC4472377
OpenAlex: W2059608342
Cited by: 839
References: 88
Citations by year: 2026: 80 · 2025: 93 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 108 · 2020: 132 · 2019: 48 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 13
FWCI: 40.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: Templeton World Charity Foundation
John Templeton Foundation
National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: Whole Trait Theory, personality traits, Big Five personality traits, trait models, trait structure

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Whole Trait Theory

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks