Whole Trait Theory

“The trait approach, as instantiated in the Big 5/HEXACO model (Ashton & Lee, 2009; Costa & McCrae, 2006; DeYoung, Weisberg, Quilty, & Peterson, 2013; Goldberg, 1992; Johnson, 1997, Perugini & Gallucci, 1997; see also Wright et al., 2013), has made remarkable progress in identifying the content of…”

“The social cognitive approach starts with the observation that trait manifestations appear to be inconsistent (Cervone, 2005; Hartshorne & May, 1928; Mischel, 1968).”

“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript competencies, self-regulatory plans, and goals (Allport, 1937; Mischel & Shoda, 1995; Mischel, 1973).”

“Although the trait approach would allow for some variability in behavior, it does not appear to allow the high degree of variable responding required in the social-cognitive approach (Allport, 1937; Fleeson & Noftle, 2009; Mischel, 1973).”

“Traits matter to important outcomes (Duckworth, Weir, Tsukayama, & Kwok, 2012; Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006; Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007; Turiano, Chapman, Gruenewald, & Mroczek, 2013), and observers agree about Big 5 levels of targets (Vazire, 2010).”

“Furthermore, although traits do a reasonable job of describing behavior and identity, even on that front they fall somewhat short (Kandler, Zimmerman, & McAdams, 2014; McAdams & Pals, 2006).”

“The trait approach, as instantiated in the Big 5/HEXACO model (Ashton & Lee, 2009; Costa & McCrae, 2006; DeYoung, Weisberg, Quilty, & Peterson, 2013; Goldberg, 1992; Johnson, 1997, Perugini & Gallucci, 1997; see also Wright et al., 2013), has made remarkable progress in identifying the content of…”

“…in affect, something that is commonly known to vary so much that it is hard to conceive of it as a trait; and (iii) more than the amount of variability between individuals, meaning that individuals differ from themselves more than they differ from others (Fleeson, 2001; Noftle & Fleeson, 2010).”

“The state concept has been used to characterize emotions and anxiety for some time (e.g., Gerstorf, Siedlecki, Tucker-Drob, & Salthouse, 2009; Watson, 1988).”

“In short, trait theory has described the what, but few theories have attempted to explain the why or how (with a few, mostly biological, exceptions, e.g., Depue & Collins, 1999; DeYoung, 2010; DeYoung et al., 2010;H. J. Eysenck, 1997; Gray, 1981; see also DeYoung, 2014 and Read et al., 2010).”

“This is a difficult move to make because of the long history of antagonism between social-cognitive and trait approaches (Funder, 2009; Kenrick & Funder, 1988; Lucas & Donnellan, 2009).”

“It includes variables such as goals, expectancies, competencies, and plans (Mischel, 1973), but goes beyond them to include narratives, scripts, defenses, and other variables (Demorest, Popovska, & Dabova, 2012; McAdams & Olson, 2010).”

“One distinctive feature that distinguishes Whole Trait Theory from existing social-cognitive approaches such as CAPS (Mischel, 2004; Mischel & Shoda, 1995) is its grounding in the Big 5.”

“Additional evidence that distributions are the descriptive side of traits is that distribution parameters correlate with self-reported questionnaire scores on the corresponding traits (Fleeson & Gallagher, 2009).”

“The social cognitive approach starts with the observation that trait manifestations appear to be inconsistent (Cervone, 2005; Hartshorne & May, 1928; Mischel, 1968).”

“Finally, situations, behaviors, and the links between them may cause each other (Cramer et al., 2012).”

“In short, trait theory has described the what, but few theories have attempted to explain the why or how (with a few, mostly biological, exceptions, e.g., Depue & Collins, 1999; DeYoung, 2010; DeYoung et al., 2010;H. J. Eysenck, 1997; Gray, 1981; see also DeYoung, 2014 and Read et al., 2010).”

“Big 5 personality states are predictable from features of the situation (Bleidorn, 2009; Church et al., 2008; Clifton & Kuper, 2011; Côté et al., 2012; Fleeson, 2007; Fournier, Moskowitz, & Zuroff, 2009; Huang & Ryan, 2011; Judge et al., 2013).”

“Because of the person-situation debate, trait and social-cognitive theories have been largely at odds with each other (Fleeson, 2012; Funder, 2009; Hampson, 2012; Lucas & Donnellan, 2009).”

“…behaviors) count as internal or environmental events that feedback into the process, continuously adjusting the interpretative process (Mischel, 1973), and impacts of the outputs on the situation also change the environmental events, creating new situations (Snyder, 2006; Snyder & Stukas, 1999).”

“For example, Costa and McCrae (2006) have motives and cognitions as an outcome of traits, McAdams and Olson (2010) and Roberts and Wood (2006) hold motivational and trait domains as separate domains of personality functioning, and Winter and colleagues (1998) suggested motives provide the direction…”

“First, the actual manifestation of traits in everyday life took a form amenable to social-cognitive explanations (Baird et al., 2006; Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Gallagher, 2009; Timothy Church et al., 2013).”

“Big 5 personality states are also predictable from the goals an individual is pursuing at the moment (Bleidorn, 2009; Heller et al., 2007; McCabe & Fleeson, 2012; Perunovic et al., 2011).”

“Whole Trait Theory starts with the assertion that the descriptive side of traits is best thought of as density distributions of states (Baird, Le, & Lucas, 2006; Fleeson, 2001, 2012; Fleeson & Wilt, 2010; Judge, Simon, Hurst, & Kelley, 2013; Timothy Church et al., 2013).”

“Because of the person-situation debate, trait and social-cognitive theories have been largely at odds with each other (Fleeson, 2012; Funder, 2009; Hampson, 2012; Lucas & Donnellan, 2009).”

“Evidence for the Big 5 includes strong crossquestionnaire (Costa & McCrae, 2006) and cross-cultural replicability (Saucier, 2009).”

“Fortunately, Whole Trait Theory is joined in this endeavor by theories engaged in at least partially overlapping activities (Baumert & Schmitt, 2012; Bleidorn, 2009; Cramer et al., 2012; Denissen, van Aken, Penke, & Wood, 2013; DeYoung, this volume; Little & Joseph, 2007; Perunovic, Heller, Ross, & Komar, 2011; Read e…”

“Finally, factor analyses of these states have revealed structures similar to the Big 5 (Borkenau & Ostendorf, 1998).”

“Second, social-cognitive mechanisms were shown to predict the actual manifestation of traits, arguing that they are indeed at least part of the explanation of traits (Church et al., 2008; Clifton & Kuper, 2011; Fleeson, 2007; Heller et al., 2007; Judge et al., 2013; McCabe & Fleeson, 2012; McNiel, Lowman, & Fleeson, 2…”

“…in affect, something that is commonly known to vary so much that it is hard to conceive of it as a trait; and (iii) more than the amount of variability between individuals, meaning that individuals differ from themselves more than they differ from others (Fleeson, 2001; Noftle & Fleeson, 2010).”

“…(Ashton & Lee, 2009; Costa & McCrae, 2006; DeYoung, Weisberg, Quilty, & Peterson, 2013; Goldberg, 1992; Johnson, 1997, Perugini & Gallucci, 1997; see also Wright et al., 2013), has made remarkable progress in identifying the content of broad traits and in providing evidence for their existence.”

“Second, social-cognitive mechanisms were shown to predict the actual manifestation of traits, arguing that they are indeed at least part of the explanation of traits (Church et al., 2008; Clifton & Kuper, 2011; Fleeson, 2007; Heller et al., 2007; Judge et al., 2013; McCabe & Fleeson, 2012; McNiel, Lowman, & Fleeson, 2…”

“Although the trait approach would allow for some variability in behavior, it does not appear to allow the high degree of variable responding required in the social-cognitive approach (Allport, 1937; Fleeson & Noftle, 2009; Mischel, 1973).”

“Whole Trait Theory starts with the assertion that the descriptive side of traits is best thought of as density distributions of states (Baird, Le, & Lucas, 2006; Fleeson, 2001, 2012; Fleeson & Wilt, 2010; Judge, Simon, Hurst, & Kelley, 2013; Timothy Church et al., 2013).”

“Fortunately, Whole Trait Theory is joined in this endeavor by theories engaged in at least partially overlapping activities (Baumert & Schmitt, 2012; Bleidorn, 2009; Cramer et al., 2012; Denissen, van Aken, Penke, & Wood, 2013; DeYoung, this volume; Little & Joseph, 2007; Perunovic, Heller, Ross, &…”

“(Hartshorne & May, 1928, p.385).”

“…situational, work, cultural, motivational, and interpersonal processes involved in causing Big 5 personality states (Côté, Moskowitz, & Zuroff, 2012; Fleeson, 2007; Heller, Komar, & Lee, 2007; Huang & Ryan, 2011; Judge et al., 2013; McCabe & Fleeson, 2012; Read et al., 2010; Church et al., 2013).”

“Big 5 personality states are also predictable from the goals an individual is pursuing at the moment (Bleidorn, 2009; Heller et al., 2007; McCabe & Fleeson, 2012; Perunovic et al., 2011).”

“Big 5 personality states are predictable from features of the situation (Bleidorn, 2009; Church et al., 2008; Clifton & Kuper, 2011; Côté et al., 2012; Fleeson, 2007; Fournier, Moskowitz, & Zuroff, 2009; Huang & Ryan, 2011; Judge et al., 2013).”

“Because of the person-situation debate, trait and social-cognitive theories have been largely at odds with each other (Fleeson, 2012; Funder, 2009; Hampson, 2012; Lucas & Donnellan, 2009).”

“We propose that several processes, including social-cognitive ones described by (but not identical to) CAPS (Mischel & Shoda, 1995), are the determinants of states (Fleeson & Jolley, 2006).”

“For example, the script of “The unknown-fear” may lead to reduced extraversion behaviors (Demorest et al., 2012).”

“…overlapping activities (Baumert & Schmitt, 2012; Bleidorn, 2009; Cramer et al., 2012; Denissen, van Aken, Penke, & Wood, 2013; DeYoung, this volume; Little & Joseph, 2007; Perunovic, Heller, Ross, & Komar, 2011; Read et al., 2010; Snow, 2009) Whole Trait Theory makes five primary points, as shown…”

“…shown to predict the actual manifestation of traits, arguing that they are indeed at least part of the explanation of traits (Church et al., 2008; Clifton & Kuper, 2011; Fleeson, 2007; Heller et al., 2007; Judge et al., 2013; McCabe & Fleeson, 2012; McNiel, Lowman, & Fleeson, 2010; Read et al.,…”

“Fortunately, Whole Trait Theory is joined in this endeavor by theories engaged in at least partially overlapping activities (Baumert & Schmitt, 2012; Bleidorn, 2009; Cramer et al., 2012; Denissen, van Aken, Penke, & Wood, 2013; DeYoung, this volume; Little & Joseph, 2007; Perunovic, Heller, Ross, &…”

“Big 5 personality states are also predictable from the goals an individual is pursuing at the moment (Bleidorn, 2009; Heller et al., 2007; McCabe & Fleeson, 2012; Perunovic et al., 2011).”

“For example, although self-ratings of personality traits are moderately heritable (40–55% range; Bouchard & McGue, 2003), personality expression varies across contexts (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015) and trait levels of personality change over time (Roberts, Walton, & Viechtbauer, 2006).”

“Personality trait change presumably comes about because repeated states get ingrained and become long-term, consistent patterns (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Magidson et al., 2014; Roberts, 2009; W. Wood & Neal, 2007), the processes are detailed in the section “Processes of Transferring Short-Term…”

“…regarding the existence and consistency of personality to more fundamental questions about the mechanisms underlying personality (Fleeson, 2012; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2014), research on how different types of adverse and traumatic life events affect personality can provide important insights…”