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Whole Trait Theory
Open accessAbstract
Personality researchers should modify models of traits to include mechanisms of differential reaction to situations. Whole Trait Theory does so via five main points. First, the descriptive side of traits should be conceptualized as density distributions of states. Second, it is important to provide an explanatory account of the Big 5 traits. Third, adding an explanatory account to the Big 5 creates two parts to traits, an explanatory part and a descriptive part, and these two parts should be recognized as separate entities that are joined into whole traits. Fourth, Whole Trait Theory proposes that the explanatory side of traits consists of social-cognitive mechanisms. Fifth, social-cognitive mechanisms that produce Big-5 states should be identified.
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“The Whole-Trait Theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015) and the TESSERA framework (Wrzus & Roberts, 2017) proposed that states are manifesting as an interaction of traits with specific situations.”
From Investigating state and trait aspects of resilience using Generalizability theory (2024) · cites this paper as Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015
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Cites
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“The social cognitive approach starts with the observation that trait manifestations appear to be inconsistent (Cervone, 2005; Hartshorne & May, 1928; Mischel, 1968).”
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“Although the trait approach would allow for some variability in behavior, it does not appear to allow the high degree of variable responding required in the social-cognitive approach (Allport, 1937; Fleeson & Noftle, 2009; Mischel, 1973).”
BackgroundInfluentialRoberts, B. W., Kuncel, N. R., Shiner, R., Caspi, A., & Goldberg, L. R. (2007) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00047.x · Cited by 2,361
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“Furthermore, although traits do a reasonable job of describing behavior and identity, even on that front they fall somewhat short (Kandler, Zimmerman, & McAdams, 2014; McAdams & Pals, 2006).”
Background
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Items 301–400 of 839
Noftle, E. E., & Gust, C. J. (2019) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2203 · Cited by 13
“This theory, which is a developmental instantiation of whole trait theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015), argues for two sets of explanatory mechanisms that guide adult personality development.”
BackgroundGong, X., & Nikitin, J. (2021) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2021.1905612 · Cited by 13
“Although many recommend this approach (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015), some researchers have questioned it.”
BackgroundMehta, S., Rice, D. B., McIntyre, A., Getty, H., Speechley, M. R., Sequeira, K., Shapiro, A. P., Morley-Forster, P. K., & Teasell, R. W. (2016) · Pain Research and Management · doi:10.1155/2016/5187631 · Cited by 13
Assessing personality dynamics in personnel selection
Sosnowska, J., Hofmans, J., & Lievens, F. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813995-0.00044-3 · Cited by 14
Open Peer Commentary and Authors‘ Response
Blackie, L. E. R., & Jayawickreme, E. (2015) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2005 · Cited by 14
Self-citationLifespan trait development: Toward an adequate theory of personality
McCrae, R. R., Bolle, M. D., Löckenhoff, C. E., & Terracciano, A. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813995-0.00023-6 · Cited by 16
Grund, A., Galla, B. M., & Fries, S. (2022) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102176 · Cited by 18
Huang, I. S., Cheung, Y. W. Y., & Hoorn, J. F. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2023.103107 · Cited by 12
Trait self-control: A Process Model perspective
Napolitano, C. M., Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2024) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101858 · Cited by 18
Are open and neurotic behaviors related to cognitive behaviors in daily life of older adults?
Aschwanden, D., Luchetti, M., & Allemand, M. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12409 · Cited by 14
Positive Daily Experiences Are Associated with Personality Trait Changes in Middle–Aged Mothers
Borghuis, J., Denissen, J. J. A., Sijtsma, K., Branje, S., Meeus, W., & Bleidorn, W. (2018) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2178 · Cited by 12
“…to conflict with the widely held view that personality traits are distal causes of daily psychological experiences (Allport, 1937; Deary, 2009; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; McCrae & Costa, 1991; McCrae & Sutin, 2018; Roberts, 2018; Wrzus & Roberts, 2017), we cannot rule out alternative…”
BackgroundContributions of trait, domain, and signature components of self-criticism to stress generation
Zuroff, D. C., Clegg, K., Levine, S. L., Haward, B., & Thode, S. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110603 · Cited by 12
Personality and interests for selection: Theoretical perspectives
Rumsey, M. G. (2020) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2019.1652478 · Cited by 15
“Fleeson and Jayawickreme (2015) have even proposed aWhole Trait Theory, in which social cognitive mechanisms constitute the explanatory part of traits to accompany the other, descriptive part.”
BackgroundInfluentialRichels, K. A., Day, E. A., Jorgensen, A. G., & Huck, J. T. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00377 · Cited by 17
“In this way, the present research reflects a basic premise of Whole Trait Theory: there are fluctuations in the expressions of traits, even the expression of the Big Five, which traditionally have been thought to be fairly stable (Fleeson and Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodExaminations of change in inhibitory and initiatory Self-Control in the context of endurance running
Shubert, J., Houltberg, B. J., Ratchford, J. L., & Schnitker, S. A. (2020) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2020.1787553 · Cited by 12
“Although traits have historically been considered stable individual differences, more recent work from both personality theory (e.g., Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015) and self-control research (e.g., Wills & Dishion, 2004) employs a transactional approach, suggesting that traits, including…”
ResultLang, J. W. B., Runge, J. M., & Fruyt, F. D. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211012932 · Cited by 12
“For instance, research on variability (Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Lievens et al., 2018; Sosnowska, Kuppens, et al., 2019) frequently draws on ideas from the situational specificity literature to argue that variability is a result of many small if-then contingencies (Mischel &…”
BackgroundCan Job Stressors Activate Amoral Manipulation? A Weekly Diary Study
Ma, G. X., Petrou, P., Bakker, A. B., & Born, M. P. (2022) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-022-05170-6 · Cited by 15
“We use trait AM as moderator instead of the overarching construct of Machiavellianism in order to make sure that the interactions between job stressors and the specific individual trait AM could eventually lead to the corresponding within-person state level of AM (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGiacomin, M., & Jordan, C. H. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_11 · Cited by 12
Open Peer Commentary and Author'S Response
Heimann, A. L., & Ingold, P. V. (2017) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2119 · Cited by 12
Roche, M. J., & Pincus, A. L. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119173489.ch14 · Cited by 12
Darker by the day: Daily variability in dark personality traits
Hardin, B. S., & Smith, C. V. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111248 · Cited by 15
Stability and change in dispositional envy: Longitudinal evidence on envy as a stable trait
Erz, E., & Rentzsch, K. (2022) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070221128137 · Cited by 15
“…use trait and state measures of envy, in order to investigate how the stable trait translates into state envy experienced in everyday life as suggested by classical state-trait theories (e.g., Rosenberg, 1998; Spielberger, 1972) and modern trait approaches (e.g., Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundHasselhorn, K., Ottenstein, C., Meiser, T., & Lischetzke, T. (2024) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2024.2354233 · Cited by 11
“…latent constructs at the between-person level as traits and to the latent constructs at the within-person level as states , a practice that is in line with theoretical accounts of within-and between-person differences in personality dimensions (e.g., Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Menghini, L., & Balducci, C. (2024) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000383 · Cited by 11
Kiendl, K., Wenzel, M., Kleinke, K., & Hennecke, M. (2024) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070241295321 · Cited by 12
“For example, Whole Trait Theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015) suggest that personality traits are best understood as density distributions of personality states: Even a person with high average conscientiousness will show variation in the states around their typical level of conscientiousness,…”
Kritzler, S., Horstmann, K. T., Quintus, M., Egloff, B., Wrzus, C., & Luhmann, M. (2024) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000519 · Cited by 14
The relational regulation of within‐person variation in personality expression
Lakey, B., Hubbard, S. A., Brummans, J., Obreiter, A., & Perrin, P. B. (2021) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12659 · Cited by 12
Hein, V., Koka, A., Tilga, H., Kalajas-Tilga, H., & Raudsepp, L. (2021) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/00315125211040448 · Cited by 12
“According to whole trait theory (WTT; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Jayawickreme et al., 2019), traits can be explained among motivational or social-cognitive mechanisms from two separate points of view.”
BackgroundComponents and Correlates of Personality Coherence in Action, Agency, and Authorship
Fournier, M. A., Dong, M., Quitasol, M. N., Weststrate, N. M., & Domenico, S. I. D. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211034954 · Cited by 14
“Although the dynamics underlying personalitybehavior congruence are still not well understood, Whole Trait Theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015) may provide a promising line of investigation.”
BackgroundShort-term dynamics of pride and state self-esteem change during the university-to-work transition
Diwan, K., Chung, J. M., Meyers, C., van Doeselaar, L., & Reitz, A. K. (2023) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070231190255 · Cited by 15
“Theories suggest that the mean distribution of states (i.e., aggregated states) conceptually represent traits (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundMixture multilevel vector-autoregressive modeling.
Ernst, A. F., Timmerman, M. E., Ji, F., Jeronimus, B. F., & Albers, C. J. (2023) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000551 · Cited by 11
The development of goals and motivation
Hennecke, M., & Freund, A. M. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804674-6.00016-8 · Cited by 14
The voluntary control of piloerection
Heathers, J. A. J., Fayn, K., Silvia, P. J., Tiliopoulos, N., & Goodwin, M. S. (2018) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.5292 · Cited by 11
How do personality traits manifest in daily life of older adults?
Lindner, S., Aschwanden, D., Zimmermann, J., & Allemand, M. (2021) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-020-00598-z · Cited by 13
Evolutionary Personality Psychology
Lewis, D. M. G., Al-Shawaf, L., & Buss, D. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.022 · Cited by 11
Jayawickreme, E., Holleran, S. E., Sutton, S., Furr, R. M., & Fleeson, W. (2022) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000445 · Cited by 12
Self-citation(Re)Considering Personality in Criminological Research
Thielmann, I. (2023) · Crime and Justice · doi:10.1086/726781 · Cited by 12
State Emotional Clarity Is an Indicator of Fluid Emotional Intelligence Ability
Eckland, N. S., & Thompson, R. J. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11100196 · Cited by 17
“Whole trait theory (Fleeson and Jayawickreme 2015) argues two key points that may explain why emotional clarity fluctuates.”
BackgroundFrenzel, A., Kleen, H., Marx, A., Sachs, D. F., Baier-Mosch, F., & Kunter, M. (2025) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12734 · Cited by 9
“It is a long-standing theoretical proposition that a specific human action results from an interaction between personality characteristics and situational demands (for more recent accounts, see e.g., Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Lewin, 1936).”
How Individual Differences in Empathy Predict Moments of Empathy in Everyday Life
Depow, G. J., & Inzlicht, M. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672251333823 · Cited by 14
“Further, state deviations from trait averages are not only due to error but are also driven by social-cognitive mechanisms and situational influences (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Hotchin, V., & West, K. (2021) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672211030125 · Cited by 10
“States are influenced by an individual’s tendencies, motivations, and the characteristics of the situations they experience (Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundRitz, J., Woods, S. A., Wille, B., Woo, S. E., Nübold, A., Beckmann, N., Dalal, R. S., Galić, Z., Wiernik, B. M., Tett, R. P., et al. (2023) · Personality Science · doi:10.5964/ps.7045 · Cited by 14
Krautter, K., Büchner, A., & Jachimowicz, J. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672231211843 · Cited by 9
“Prior research notes that the frequency and intensity with which individuals enact a given set of behaviors is influenced by how strongly they lean toward a given trait (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Hengartner, M. P., Graf, M., & Schreiber, M. (2017) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.1366 · Cited by 10
Agreeable mothers: How they manage adverse circumstances and difficult children
Bradley, R. H., & CORWYN, R. F. (2019) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2019.03.002 · Cited by 10
Stieger, M., Hill, P. L., & Allemand, M. (2019) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12501 · Cited by 11
Richter, J., & Finn, C. T. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248620 · Cited by 16
“According to the authors of Whole trait theory [56], several requisites must be met in order for an individual to produce a specific behavior in any given situation.”
BackgroundInfluentialBig five traits and interpersonal goals during stressors as predictors of hair cortisol
Erickson, T. M., Jacobson, S. V., Banning, R. L., Quach, C. M., & Reas, H. E. (2021) · Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.cpnec.2021.100084 · Cited by 10
“Furthermore, traits are theorized to interact with situational states or stressors [41, 42].”
BackgroundDevelopment of Personality across the Life Span
Atherton, O. E., Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.017 · Cited by 15
Personality coherence as a personality dynamics‐related concept
Fajkowska, M. (2022) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12717 · Cited by 11
Gutierrez, L., Velasco, L., Blanco, S., Catala, P., Pastor-Mira, M. Á., & Peñacoba, C. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111165 · Cited by 9
Roemer, L., Stoll, G., Rounds, J., & Ziegler, M. (2023) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104386 · Cited by 10
Rónai, L., Hann, F., Kéri, S., Ettinger, U., & Polner, B. (2023) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2023.104462 · Cited by 12
Marentes-Castillo, M., Castillo, I., Tomás-Marco, I., & Álvarez, O. (2024) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports12020041 · Cited by 9
Big Five traits predict between- and within-person variation in loneliness
Shrestha, S., Sigdel, K., Pokharel, M., & Columbus, S. (2024) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070241239834 · Cited by 14
“Whole trait theory, in particular, holds that traits are re fl ections of the density distributions of states; that is, that individuals experience varying (personality) states, but differ between each other in the distribution of these states (Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
Virtue Monism. Some Advantages for Character Education
Niccoli, A., Piantoni, M., & Ricci, E. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10041-y · Cited by 9
The relevance/significance of stimuli appraisals for personality traits in an academic context
Cummings, D. J., Loxton, N. J., & Poropat, A. E. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.04.008 · Cited by 9
Personality traits in social interactions: A tutorial on network analysis of personality dynamics
Costantini, G., Richetin, J., Preti, E., Casini, E., & Perugini, M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813995-0.00039-x · Cited by 9
Self-Other Agreement in Experience Sampling Measures
Leikas, S., & Lönnqvist, J. (2022) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506221103907 · Cited by 8
“In choosing the dimensions of interest, the present study draws, first, from the Whole Trait theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
MethodThe Dirichlet Dual Response Model: An Item Response Model for Continuous Bounded Interval Responses
Kloft, M., Hartmann, R., Voß, A., & Heck, D. W. (2023) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-023-09924-7 · Cited by 10
Characteristics of Traits That Are Related to Accuracy of Personality Judgments
Krzyzaniak, S. L., & Letzring, T. D. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190912529.013.8 · Cited by 9
Does acting extraverted evoke positive social feedback?
Davydenko, M., Zelenski, J. M., González, A., & Whelan, D. C. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.109883 · Cited by 9
Perinelli, E., & Alessandri, G. (2020) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/ijsa.12308 · Cited by 9
“Under this perspective, stating that a worker is high on a trait reduces to asserting that he or she often reports or shows low/high trait-relevant states (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundRam, N., Benson, L., Brick, T. R., Conroy, D. E., & Pincus, A. L. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.06.010 · Cited by 9
“…of whole trait theory, the identification of this cluster using EMD-based, “bottom-up” procedures clearly provides a window for exploring how interpersonal processes manifesting in daily social interaction contribute to the explanation of personality traits (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
InfluentialStudents’ multiple state goals as a function of appraisals, trait goals, and their interactions
Bürger, K., & Schmitt, M. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.09.006 · Cited by 9
Wundrack, R., Prager, J., Asselmann, E., O’Connell, G., & Specht, J. (2018) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence6040050 · Cited by 10
Personality and Social Psychology Approaches to Religious and Spiritual Development in Adolescents
Schnitker, S. A., Williams, E. G., & Medenwaldt, J. M. (2021) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-020-00144-z · Cited by 15
Personality and Social Relationships: As Thick as ThievesPreprint
Mund, M., Jeronimus, B. F., & Neyer, F. J. (2017) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gm8qv · Cited by 9
Doing Despite Disliking: Self-Regulatory Strategies in Everyday Aversive ActivitiesPreprint
Hennecke, M., Czikmantori, T., & Brandstätter, V. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ps7fk · Cited by 12
Bader, M., Columbus, S., Zettler, I., & Mayer, A. (2024) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070241246930 · Cited by 9
“Descriptively, personality traits re fl ect the conceptually corresponding states a person experiences across situations (Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015), such that trait measures should correspond closely to the central tendency of the density distribution of states (Fleeson, 2001;…”
InfluentialSingh, S., & Basri, S. (2024) · Cogent Business & Management · doi:10.1080/23311975.2024.2415530 · Cited by 8
“…behavioral patterns, thoughts, and emotions. trait theorists believe that assessing ‘traits’ leads to a better understanding of human personality (Fleeson & Jayawickreme 2015). these personality features become typically stable through time depending on the social and environmental conditions…”
InfluentialThe many faces of narcissism: A question of situation perception?
Bauditz, S. C., Wright, A. G. C., Heß, U., & Ziegler, M. D. (2024) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2024.104554 · Cited by 12
Keller, M. M., Yanagida, T., Lüdtke, O., & Goetz, T. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-025-09995-1 · Cited by 9
Self-utility distance as a computational approach to understanding self-concept clarity
García‐Arch, J., Korn, C. W., & Fuentemilla, L. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00231-8 · Cited by 10
“However, individuals ’ adjustment to perceived environmental demands is to some extent constrained by a tendency for behavioral patternstoclusteraroundstablebaselines 31,32 .”
Rise of the Dark Side: How Sleep Perception Triggers Dark Triad States at Work
Kuijpers, E., Vergauwe, J., Vanderperre, S., Maîresse, O., & Hofmans, J. (2025) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2885 · Cited by 9
Snow, N. E. (2020) · Journal of Moral Education · doi:10.1080/03057240.2020.1773777 · Cited by 10
“For WTT, see Fleeson and Gallagher (2009), Fleeson and Jayawickreme (2015), and Jayawickreme and Fleeson (2017).”
BackgroundApproach–Avoidance Theories of Personality
Corr, P. J., & Krupıć, D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.025 · Cited by 12
Does looking forward set you back? Development and validation of the work prospection scale
Rutten, R. L. J., Hulsheger, U. R., & Zijlstra, F. (2022) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2022.2080058 · Cited by 9
“In fact, traits and states are not independent of one another but traits can be viewed as density distributions of states (Fleeson, 2001; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015); traits manifest as state expressions in daily life and “describe differences between individuals in how they react to situations”…”
BackgroundLekkas, D., Gyorda, J. A., Moen, E. L., & Jacobson, N. C. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0277516 · Cited by 8
“WTT posits that individuals will experience each of the 5F traits throughout their lives, but to varying degrees from day-to-day [17].”
BackgroundExamining the impact of major life events on the frequency and experience of daily social events
Jayawickreme, E., Tsukayama, E., & Blackie, L. E. R. (2023) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12819 · Cited by 8
Self-citationWagner, J., Wieczorek, L. L., & Brandt, N. D. (2023) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000481 · Cited by 13
Roemer, L., Stoll, G., Rounds, J., & Ziegler, M. D. (2023) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070231205040 · Cited by 8
“…(or even utilize) the functioning of vocational interests, it is crucial to understand how trait interests manifest as states in the moment, which contextual variables give rise to state interests, and whether state interests may lead to long-term outcomes (see also Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundDynamic processes underlying individual differences in moral behavior
Luke, D. M., Prentice, M. S., & Fleeson, W. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813995-0.00046-7 · Cited by 8
Self-citationInterpersonal theory and personality processes
Roche, M. J., & Cain, N. M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813995-0.00025-x · Cited by 8
Mixed Associations Between Grit and transformational Leadership Behavior
Caza, A., & Posner, B. Z. (2021) · Journal of Leadership Studies · doi:10.1002/jls.21781 · Cited by 9
Interplay between personality traits and learning strategies: the missing link
Albar, R. A., Mohamed, A. M. A., Albarazi, M., McAleer, S., & Shaibah, H. (2022) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00001.2022 · Cited by 11
Caprara, G. V., & Vecchione, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.038 · Cited by 9
Misattribution of duties as free choices: The role of emotional awareness in self-infiltration
Jais, M., Bakaç, C., Kehr, H. M., Baumann, N., & Quirin, M. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103401 · Cited by 9
A new day, a new me: Daily event domain and valence interact in relation to daily personality
Hadden, B. W., Smith, C. V., Osborne, T., & Webster, G. D. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.033 · Cited by 11
How Factor Analysis Has Shaped Personality Trait Psychology
Booth, T., & Murray, A. L. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118489772.ch29 · Cited by 8
Evolutionary perspectives on the mechanistic underpinnings of personalityPreprint
Lukaszewski, A. W. (2019) · doi:10.17605/osf.io/e4skw · Cited by 8
Experience Sampling and Daily Diary Studies: Basic Concepts, Designs, and Challenges.pdfPreprint
Horstmann, K. T. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mzw5p · Cited by 8
A Systematic Review and Taxonomy of Neuroticism Interventions for the General PublicPreprint
Wright, A. J., Haehner, P., Hopwood, C. J., & Bleidorn, W. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jy3eb · Cited by 11
Mueller, N., Loeffelsend, S., Vater, E., & Kempen, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1149969 · Cited by 8
“In the case of our daily diary study, whole trait theory (Fleeson and Jayawickreme, 2015) provides the theoretical basis for the assumption of intra-individual fluctuations in segmentation preferences.”
BackgroundHow Do People Feel About Mates?
Eastwick, P. W., & Joel, S. (2024) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-012224-025712 · Cited by 9
A smartphone-based intervention to decrease neuroticism: Protocol of the CHILL Study
Haehner, P., Wright, A. J., Andrae, R., Lubczyk, T., Betancourt, L. A. R., Hopwood, C. J., & Bleidorn, W. (2025) · Personality Science · doi:10.1177/27000710251319409 · Cited by 8
“…domain-speci fi c pairings of thoughts, feelings and behaviors, whereas trait-level interventions directly address stable, dispositional patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that generalize across situations (Allemand & Flückiger, 2017; Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015; Wrzus & Roberts, 2017).”
Columbus, S., & Strandsbjerg, C. F. (2025) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102099 · Cited by 10
Baehr, J. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780191947469.001.0001 · Cited by 8
Task Enjoyment as an Individual Difference Construct
Czikmantori, T., Hennecke, M., & Brandstätter, V. (2021) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2021.1882473 · Cited by 9
“…itself: Given that state task enjoyment benefits motivation, performance, well-being, goal pursuit, and interest (e.g., Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Kuhl, 2018; Pekrun, 2006), trait task enjoyment should do the same through its relation to state task enjoyment (see Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodToward an Index of Adaptive Personality Regulation
Paul Irwing, B., Cook, C., & Hughes, D. J. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672231177567 · Cited by 9
“Many theories are concerned with the relationship between expressed personality and situational variables/ appraisals, including whole trait theory (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015), cybernetic Big 5 theory (DeYoung, 2015), and trait-activation theory (Tett & Burnett, 2003).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Fleeson, W., & Jayawickreme, E.
- Affiliations
- Wake Forest University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fleeson, William
- Venue
- Journal of Research in Personality
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-06
- Volume
- 56
- Pages
- 82-92
- ISSN
- 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4472377
- OpenAlex
- W2059608342
- Cited by
- 839
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 80 · 2025: 93 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 108 · 2020: 132 · 2019: 48 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 42 · 2015: 13
- FWCI
- 40.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Templeton World Charity Foundation
- John Templeton Foundation
- National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- Whole Trait Theory, personality traits, Big Five personality traits, trait models, trait structure
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