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Memory, Sleep, and Dreaming: Experiencing Consolidation
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It is now well established that post-learning sleep is beneficial for human memory performance. At the same time, it has long been known that learning experiences influence the content of subsequent sleep mentation (i.e., "dreaming"). Here, we review evidence that newly encoded memories are reactivated and consolidated in the sleeping brain, and that this process is directly reflected in the content of concomitant sleep mentation, providing a valuable window into the mnemonic functions of sleep.
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“Dreaming could reflect the reactivation and consolidation of memories during sleep (Nielsen and Stenstrom, 2005; Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011).”
From The Functional Role of Dreaming in Emotional Processes (2019) · cites this paper as Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011
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Dreaming as mind wandering: evidence from functional neuroimaging and first-person content reports
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“…a source of creativity, insight and problem-solving (Schredl and Erlacher, 2007), an opportunity for emotional adaptation (Cartwright et al., 1998; Lara-Carrasco et al., 2009), and an expression and potential means of memory consolidation (Nielsen and Stenstrom, 2005; Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011).”
BackgroundHow memory replay in sleep boosts creative problem-solving
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“Some authors even speculate that REM replay may be associated with the vivid dreaming that characterises this sleep stage [67,77].”
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Scarpelli, S., Bartolacci, C., D'Atri, A., Gorgoni, M., & De Gennaro, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00459 · Cited by 190
“Dreaming could reflect the reactivation and consolidation of memories during sleep (Nielsen and Stenstrom, 2005; Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011).”
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Genzel, L., Spoormaker, V. I., Konrad, B. N., & Dresler, M. (2015) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2015.01.008 · Cited by 161
“On the neurophysiological level, dream mentation has been suggested to represent the phenomenological reflection of a neural replay of activation patterns associated with recent learning experiences (Wamsley, 2014; Wamsley Stickgold, 2011; Wilson McNaughton, 1994).”
BackgroundDoes Consciousness Disappear in Dreamless Sleep?
Windt, J., Nielsen, T., & Thompson, E. T. (2016) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.09.006 · Cited by 160
Evidence for the preferential incorporation of emotional waking-life experiences into dreams.
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“…the strengthening and enhanced recall of those experiences; rather, with many modern memory consolidation theories, it is suggested that emotional memories are incorporated into dreams in order to be integrated or assimilated into the wider memory system (Payne, 2010; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011).”
Local Sleep and Alzheimer’s Disease Pathophysiology
Mander, B. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.525970 · Cited by 97
“In particular, certain micro features of sleep are expressed locally within specific brain circuits supporting processes regulating systemic and synaptic neuroplasticity (McGaugh, 2000) in order to facilitate memory formation and consolidation (Buzsaki, 1998; Steriade, 2006; Walker, 2009; Diekelmann and Born, 2010; Wa…”
BackgroundMalinowski, J., & Horton, C. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01132 · Cited by 104
“In line with sleep and memory researchers (e.g., Payne, 2010; Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011), we propose that emotional waking-life memories are preferentially activated during sleep, thus appearing in dreams, in order to assimilate these memories into the wider memory system.”
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“For experiment 1, participants kept a daily log for 10 days before having dream reports collected during one night in the sleep laboratory or at home.”
MethodSingh, D., Norman, K. A., & Schapiro, A. C. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2123432119 · Cited by 81
Assessing the dream-lag effect for rem and nrem stage 2 dreams
Blagrove, M., Fouquet, N. C., Henley-Einion, J. A., Pace-Schott, E. F., Davies, A. C., Neuschaffer, J. L., & Turnbull, O. H. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026708 · Cited by 75
“Following Walker and Stickgold [25], we also predict that delayed incorporation dreams are more likely to occur later in the night than earlier.”
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Sikka, P., Revonsuo, A., Noreika, V., & Valli, K. (2019) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2884-18.2019 · Cited by 67
“…in waking life (e.g., Revonsuo, 2000; Nielsen and Levin, 2007; Cartwright, 2010; Perogamvros and Schwartz, 2012), to consolidate specific types of memories (Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011), or whether it simply reflects the individual’s waking life experiences (Domhoff, 1996, 2017; Schredl, 2003).”
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“It has been proposed that mental experience in sleep, such as dreaming activity, both reflects and contributes to the off-line consolidation of recent episodic memories (e.g. Cipolli et al. 2004; De Koninck et al. 1990; Fiss et al. 1977; Wamsley & Stickgold 2011).”
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“However, the question whether dreaming itself is a functional component of the consolidation of memories is highly debated (Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011; Wamsley, 2014), and this”
BackgroundDormio: A targeted dream incubation device
Horowitz, A. H., Cunningham, T. J., Maes, P., & Stickgold, R. (2020) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2020.102938 · Cited by 45
“In contrast, emotional memory is preferentially enhanced by REM sleep, and dream experiences from REM have uniquely intense emotions (Smith, Nixon, and Nader 2004; Wamsley and Stickgold 2011).”
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“One of the proposed potential functions of dreams is that the dreaming brain extracts the gist of autobiographically salient experiences [33, 34, 85, 86].”
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Eichenlaub, J.-B., Cash, S. S., & Blagrove, M. (2017) · Studies in Neuroscience, Psychology and Behavioral Economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45066-7_10 · Cited by 42
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“Such neural processes of insight and memory consolidation during sleep are proposed by Wagner et al. (2004) and Wamsley and Stickgold (2011) to be related to the formal characteristics of dream experiences.”
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Marques, D. R., Gomes, A. A., Clemente, V., dos Santos, J. M., & Castelo-Branco, M. S. (2014) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2014.08.001 · Cited by 37
“We posit that the study of DMN in the field of sleep medicine (particularly in insomnia) will bring new translational research challenges to the field of sleep neuroscience, in particular, concerning to the conceptual link with clinical practice (Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011).”
Nielsen, T., O’Reilly, C., Carr, M., Dumel, G., Godin, I., Solomonova, E., Lara-Carrasco, J., Blanchette‐Carrière, C., & Paquette, T. (2014) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2014.09.007 · Cited by 37
Targeted dream incubation at sleep onset increases post-sleep creative performance
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Self-citationNREM sleep spindles are associated with dream recall
Nielsen, T., Carr, M., Blanchette-Carrière, C., Marquis, L.-P., Dumel, G., Solomonova, E., Julien, S.-H., Picard-Deland, C., & Paquette, T. (2017) · Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States · doi:10.1556/2053.1.2016.003 · Cited by 30
Hypothalamic MCH Neurons: From Feeding to Cognitive Control
Concetti, C., Peleg-Raibstein, D., & Burdakov, D. (2023) · Function · doi:10.1093/function/zqad059 · Cited by 28
“…a recent study has r e ported that inhibition of MCH neur ons acti v e during REM-sleep facilitates the retention of hippocampus-dependent memor y, 229 ther efor e pr oposing that REM-acti v e MCH neur ons favor hippocampal forgetting (or disrupt hippocampal consolidation 188 ) during sleep.”
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Sleep spindle and psychopathology characteristics of frequent nightmare recallers
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“…provides increasing support for the neurocognitive theory and the contemporary emotional memory consolidation and integration theories (Malinowski & Horton, 2015; Nir & Tononi, 2010; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011), their predictions regarding dream bizarreness have not yet been properly evaluated.”
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Negative reinforcement impairs overnight memory consolidationPreprint
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“Based on this evidence, we have hypothesized that the consolidation of recently learned information may be reflected in the content of dreaming (56,57).”
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“As argued by Wamsley and Stickgold (2011), dreaming may be the experience of memory consolidation (during sleep see also Blagrove, Ruby, & Eichenlaub, 2013; Eichenlaub, Cash, & Blagrove, 2017; for critical discussions).”
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“…functional reasons, allows dream content to represent waking life matters about which we are more normally defended or even unaware when awake, because active inhibition of attending to these is suppressed during sleep (Freud, 1953; Wegner et al., 2004; Erdelyi, 2006; Bryant et al., 2011).”
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Weinstein, N., Campbell, R., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2018) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-017-9656-0 · Cited by 14
“Dreams may help to process and integrate people’s daily experiences (e.g., De Monchaux 1993; Wamsley and Stickgold 2011), and it is thought that meaningful experiences, particularly those that are threatening (Revonsuo 2000), are at the forefront of dream material (Erikson 1954; Jung 1948/1974).”
BackgroundPartial memory reinstatement while (lucid) dreaming to change the dream environment
Mallett, R. (2020) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2020.102974 · Cited by 20
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“For instance, there is now robust data supporting the role of sleep in memory consolidation and learning of various types (including of motor skills, perceptual skills and declarative memory) (Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011).”
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“The resulting ICs from the SogICA group level analysis, which showed high spatial similarity to RSNs [1-42], were further inspected at subject-level.”
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“Dreams are widely considered to reflect the activation and recombination of memories of waking experience, where both these memories and associations to them may be altered in the process (Hartman, 2010; Nielsen & Stenstrom, 2005; Stickgold, Hobson, Fosse, & Fosse, 2001; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011).”
BackgroundCalidad del sueño en estudiantes de medicina de la Universidad Andrés Bello, 2019, Chile
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Are delusional contents replayed during dreams?
D’Agostino, A., Aletti, G., Carboni, M. E. G., Cavallotti, S., Limosani, I., Manzone, M. L., & Scarone, S. (2013) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2013.04.006 · Cited by 11
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“…is consistent with previous findings that identify different fragments of recent waking episodes, but rarely find more elaborate replications of waking events in mentation reports from sleep (Fosse et al., 2003; Wamsley, Perry, Djonlagic, Reaven, & Stickgold, 2010; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011).”
Neuroplasticidade, memória e aprendizagem
Chaves, J. M. (2023) · Revista Psicopedagogia · doi:10.51207/2179-4057.20230006 · Cited by 10
The hippocampus facilitates integration within a symbolic field
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“There is emerging research regarding a state of ongoing dismemberment and consolidation of complex interrelated memories of all types that selectively strengthen and recombine elements of these traces and effect the network as a whole (Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialMiskovic, V., Lynn, S. J., Bagg, J. O., Pouliot, J. J., Ríos, M., & Wackermann, J. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.014 · Cited by 12
“However, this activity replay is constructive, rather than passive, in nature (Cipolli et al., 2017; Graveline and Wamsley, 2015; Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011).”
Sensational Dreams: The Prevalence of Sensory Experiences in Dreaming
van der Heijden, A. C., Thevis, J., Verhaegen, J., & Talamini, L. M. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14060533 · Cited by 11
“Conversely, dreaming affects daytime functioning [5,6] by enhancing memory consolidation [7,8], contributing to problem-solving [9,10] and facilitating emotional processing [11].”
BackgroundGood Sleep as an Important Pillar for a Healthy Life
Moosavi-Movahedi, F., & Yousefi, R. (2021) · University of Tehran science and humanities series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74326-0_10 · Cited by 8
Sexualbezogene Halluzinationen und Träume unter Anästhesie und Sedierung
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Sleep as Suspension of Localization
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van Rijn, E., Reid, A. M., Edwards, C. L., Malinowski, J., Ruby, P. M., Eichenlaub, J., & Blagrove, M. (2017) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2017.10.011 · Cited by 7
“It has been proposed that dreaming reflects the reactivation and consolidation of memories during sleep (Wamsley, Perry, Djonlagic, Babkes Reaven, & Stickgold, 2010a; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011; Wamsley, Tucker, Payne, Benavides, & Stickgold, 2010b).”
Does Playing Video Games Before Bedtime Affect Sleep?
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Such stuff as REM and NREM dreams are made on? An elaboration
Llewellyn, S. (2013) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1300160x · Cited by 7
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Subjective Consciousness: What am I?
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A role for MCH neuron firing in modulating hippocampal plasticity threshold
Harris, J. J., Burdakov, D., Peleg‐Raibstein, D., & Burdakov, D. (2023) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2023.171128 · Cited by 9
“One interesting feature of MCH neurons is that they are highly active during REM sleep [15,16] and it therefore seems plausible that this activity contributes to the proposed memory role of REM sleep (reviewed in [17]).”
BackgroundMemory, Sleep, Dreams, and Consciousness: A Perspective Based on the Memory Theory of Consciousness
Budson, A. E., & Paller, K. A. (2025) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s522975 · Cited by 6
The Influence of Sleep Talking on Nocturnal Sleep and Sleep-Dependent Cognitive Processes
Camaioni, M., Scarpelli, S., Alfonsi, V., Gorgoni, M., Bartolo, M. D., Calzolari, R., & Gennaro, L. D. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11216489 · Cited by 5
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An Attempt at Matching Waking Events Into Dream Reports by Independent Judges
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“In line with sleep and memory research (e.g., Payne and Kensinger, 2010; Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011), Malinowski and Horton (2014) propose that emotional memories are preferentially activated during sleep, thus appearing in dreams, in order to assimilate these memories into the wider memory system.”
BackgroundDream sharing and the enhancement of empathy: Theoretical and applied implications.
Blagrove, M., Lockheart, J., Carr, M., Basra, S., Graham, H., Lewis, H. M., Murphy, E., Sakalauskaite, A., Trotman, C., & Valli, K. (2021) · Dreaming · doi:10.1037/drm0000165 · Cited by 8
“…the brain is sifting memories for consolidation during sleep on the basis of their emotional relevance (van Rijn et al., 2017), and dreaming may reflect or be part of this filtering process (Eichenlaub et al., 2018; Malinowski & Horton, 2014; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011; Zadra & Stickgold, 2021).”
End-of-Life in Oncologic Patients’ Dream Content
Cicolin, A., Boffano, M., Beccuti, G., Piana, R., & Giordano, A. (2020) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci10080505 · Cited by 5
A role for MCH neuron firing in hippocampal plasticity and learningPreprint
Harris, J. J., Concetti, C., Peleg‐Raibstein, D., & Burdakov, D. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.01.518339 · Cited by 4
“…that MCH neurons augment synaptic potentiation and learning, and an entirely different body of literature which suggests that REM sleep is important for memory (reviewed in Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011), it would be sensible to guess that MCH neurons contribute to this night-time consolidation.”
BackgroundChaparro, R. A. H. (2015) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/8060900czb02dz42fbzaabazffa4036e2e54 · Cited by 5
How Adversarial REM Dreams May Facilitate Creativity, and Why We Become Aware of Them
Deperrois, N., Petrovici, M., Jordan, J., Huber, L., & Senn, W. (2024) · Clinical and Translational Neuroscience · doi:10.3390/ctn8020021 · Cited by 3
“Contemporary theories often relate dreaming to memory consolidation (e.g., see [3,13,14]) or emotional processing (e.g., see [15–17]).”
BackgroundSleep and cognition in South African patients with non-functioning pituitary adenomas
de Villiers, O., Elliot-Wilson, C., Thomas, K. G. F., Semple, P., Naiker, T., Henry, M., & Ross, I. L. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0296387 · Cited by 3
Dreams of a Transcultural Chamorro
Mageo, J. M. (2024) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/724330 · Cited by 3
Normal Sleep Compared to Altered Consciousness During Sedation
Beck, F., Gosseries, O., Weinhouse, G. L., & Bonhomme, V. L. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-06447-0_4 · Cited by 3
The method of loci (MoL) and memory consolidation: Dreaming is not MoL-like
Nielsen, T. (2013) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13001398 · Cited by 4
The Multifunctionality of Dreaming and the Oblivious Avatar
Dresler, M. (2015) · doi:10.15502/9783958570672 · Cited by 4
De Rond, M., & Tunçalp, D. (2017) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.8429 · Cited by 2
Diving deep: three experiential approaches to working with dreams and nightmares
Ellis, L. (2023) · Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies · doi:10.1080/14779757.2023.2169841 · Cited by 2
“Dream research has suggested that the purposes of dreaming include consolidating memory (Wamsley & Stickgold, 2010, 2011) and emotional regulation (e.g. Cartwright, 2010; Kramer, 1991), and that this takes place apart from any therapeutic intervention.”
BackgroundRegulation of Melanopsin and PACAP mRNA by Light, Circadian and Sleep Homeostatic Processes
Gropp, C.-M. (2014) · Universitätsbibliothek der FU Berlin Hochschulschriftenstelle u. Dokumentenserver · doi:10.17169/refubium-5547 · Cited by 2
Dreams in Blind individuals: A mystery of brain and visionPreprint
Desai, D. H. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.03.10.23286640 · Cited by 2
How Adversarial Rem-Dreams May Facilitate Creativity, and Why We Become Aware of ThemPreprint
Deperrois, N., Petrovici, M. A., Jordan, J., Huber, L. S., & Senn, W. (2024) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202403.0684.v2 · Cited by 1
Environmentalism and the Minds of Gods
Baimel, A. (2023) · Bloomsbury Academic eBooks · doi:10.5040/9781350265738.ch-0014 · Cited by 1
The modulation of emotional memory consolidation by dream affect
du Plessis, L., & Lipinska, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Sleep · doi:10.3389/frsle.2023.1239530 · Cited by 3
“However, few studies have considered the subjective experience of dreaming and its relationship to emotional memory consolidation (Wamsley and Stickgold, 2011).”
The relationship between sleep and epilepsy
Dennis, G. J. (2016) · Advances in Clinical Neuroscience & Rehabilitation · doi:10.47795/rlyc1772 · Cited by 1
Incorporation of complex narratives into dreaming
Palmieri, J., Kumral, D., Wymer, S.-J., Kirchner, S., Schneider, M., Gais, S., & Schönauer, M. (2025) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaf280 · Cited by 1
Schneemilch, C. E., Schiltz, K., Meinshausen, E., & Hachenberg, T. (2012) · Der Anaesthesist · Cited by 1
Generación y funciones de los ensueños
Medrano‐Martínez, P., & Platón, M. J. R. (2014) · Revista de Neurología · doi:10.33588/rn.5908.2014237 · Cited by 1
The Buddhist Noble Truths: Are They True?
Bronkhorst, J. (2023) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel14010082 · Cited by 3
Robert, G. (2013) · doi:10.71781/18451 · Cited by 1
“…en développement, notons l’émergence de l’idée selon laquelle le rêve pourrait avoir un rôle dans la consolidation de la mémoire (Stickgold, 2005; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2011), et plus spécifiquement, dans la mémoire émotionnelle (Diekelmann, Wilhelm, & Born, 2009; Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001),…”
Roshchupkina, A. (2016) · White Rose eTheses Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) · Cited by 1
Андреевна, Л. А. (2023) · Antropologicheskij forum · doi:10.31250/1815-8870-2023-19-58-305-318 · Cited by 1
Deliens, G., Schwartz, S., & Peigneux, P. (2013) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1300126x
“It has beenproposed thatmental experience in sleep, such as dreaming activity, both reflects and contributes to the off-line consolidation of recent episodic memories (e.g. Cipolli et al. 2004; De Koninck et al. 1990; Fiss et al. 1977; Wamsley & Stickgold 2011).”
BackgroundThe Functions of REMS and Dreaming
Moorcroft, W. H. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6467-9_11
Zadra, A. L. (2016)
Dream experiences as a method of influencing behavioural change
Melchione, C. (2015) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa)
A dream model: Reactivation and re-encoding mechanisms for sleep-dependent memory consolidation
Kachergis, G., de Kleijn, R., & Hommel, B. (2016) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University)
Pace-Schott, E. F., & Jones, B. J. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0163 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Wamsley, E. J., & Stickgold, R.
- Affiliations
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stickgold, Robert
- Venue
- Sleep Medicine Clinics
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-03
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 97-108
- ISSN
- 1556-407X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3079906
- OpenAlex
- W2019357304
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 3.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Sleep Medicine Clinics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH048832)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- memory consolidation, sleep, dreams, memory reactivation, memory encoding
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