An update on the hypothesis that one cause of autism is high intrauterine levels of testosterone of maternal origin
Abstract
Baron-Cohen's hypothesis that autism is caused by exposure to high intrauterine testosterone levels is considered in the context of (1) my hormonal hypothesis of sex ratio and (2) the notion of multifactorial inheritance. This yields the suggestions that (1) female cases of autism may be the product of (high genetic loading+moderate environmental exposure) and male cases of (high environmental exposure+moderate genetic loading), (2) one environmental agent is intrauterine testosterone and (3) the mother is the major source of that testosterone. These suggestions may help to explain most of the major established epidemiological risk factors for autism. These include various forms of pathology associated with psychological and/or physical stress. Stress of many sorts promotes the secretion of adrenal androgens in women. The three suggestions above may also explain some recently described features of autism including the psychological, behavioural and neuroanatomical differences between male and female cases.
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Elevated prenatal androgens have been strongly associated with ASD risk for more than a decade.
“For example, elevated prenatal androgens have been strongly associated with ASD risk for more than a decade (26–35) leading some to hypothesize that EDCs that alter androgen action may be contributory.”
From Endocrine Disruption of Vasopressin Systems and Related Behaviors (2017) · cites this paper as [32]
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A review of the established and suspected causes of variations in human sex ratio at birth
James, W. H., & Grech, V. (2017) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2017.03.002 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationRebuli, M. E., Gibson, P., Rhodes, C. L., Cushing, B. S., & Patisaul, H. B. (2016) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2016.04.018 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Endocrine Disruption of Vasopressin Systems and Related Behaviors
Patisaul, H. B. (2017) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2017.00134 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Rotem, R. S., Nguyen, V. T., Chodick, G., Davidovitch, M., Shalev, V., Hauser, R. B., Coull, B. A., Bellavia, A., & Weisskopf, M. G. (2020) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwaa219 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Immunogenetics of autism spectrum disorder: A systematic literature review
Arenella, M., Matulevičiūtė, R., Tamouza, R., Leboyer, M., McAlonan, G. M., Bralten, J., & Murphy, D. (2023) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2023.09.010 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Firestein, M. R., Romeo, R. D., Winstead, H., Goldman, D. A., Grobman, W. A., Haas, D., Mercer, B., Parker, C., Parry, S., Reddy, U., et al. (2022) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105125 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
James, W. H., & Grech, V. (2018) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2018.02.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationAutism Spectrum Disorders and the New Testament: Preliminary Reflections
Macaskill, G. (2017) · Journal of Disability & Religion · doi:10.1080/23312521.2017.1373613 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Xiong, F., Sun, Q. Y., Li, G., Chen, P., Yao, Z., Wan, C., Zhong, H., & Zeng, Y. (2019) · Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.tjog.2019.09.019 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Overskeid, G. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01290 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
James, W. H., & Grech, V. (2017) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-017-1113-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationMATERNAL ACTIVITY DURING PREGNANCY AND SEXUALLY DIMORPHIC TRAITS IN OFFSPRING
Ellis, L., Eisenman, R., & Hoskin, A. W. (2017) · Journal of Biosocial Science · doi:10.1017/s0021932017000074 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The sex ratio of the sibs of probands diagnosed with autism
James, W. H. (2016) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2016.03.020 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderestimated environmental factors contributing to autism spectrum disorders
Fini, J., Leemans, M., & DEMENEIX, B. A. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818466-0.00004-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Gordon, S. S., Dhanraj, D. N., Devaiah, C. G., & Lambers, D. S. (2022) · Reproductive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43032-022-00967-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Huang, X., Xie, Y., & Fang, Q. (2017) · Biomedical Reports · doi:10.3892/br.2017.923 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Building Facilities for Autistic Children in Malaysia
Nazri, N. A., & Ismail, Z. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-290-6_93
Structural connectivity of the brain in autism spectrum disorder
Gibbard, C. R. (2016) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
Pires, S. C. V. (2022) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/7058851
- Authors
- James, W. H.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- James, William H.
- Venue
- Journal of Theoretical Biology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-08
- Volume
- 355
- Pages
- 33-39
- ISSN
- 0022-5193 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2057248410
- Cited by
- 19
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2023: 1 · 2022: 2 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 2.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Theoretical Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, sex ratio, multifactorial inheritance, environmental risk factors, maternal stress, adrenal androgens, sex differences in autism, neuroanatomical differences
- MeSH terms
- Autistic Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Maternal-Fetal Exchange, Models, Biological, Pregnancy, Sex Characteristics, Stress, Physiological, Stress, Psychological, Testosterone
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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