Cited by 1,294Developmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and TestingEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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Best, John R., Miller, Patricia H., Naglieri, Jack A.·2011·Learning and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007PMC PMC3155246

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Abstract

This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.

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“Working memory is the process of loading and maintaining information in temporary memory stores ( Baddeley, 2010) and is known to be strongly predictive of future academic and career success ( Best et al., 2011; Visu-Petra et al., 2011).”
Emotion socialization and preschoolers’ narrative coherence and school readiness: moderation by executive functioning and gender
Garner, P. W., & Bassett, H. H. (2025) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2025.2527133 · Cited by 1
“EF plays a foundational role in supporting young children’s cognitive and behavioural readiness for formal schooling and in the identification of the specific abilities that are required for school success (Best et al., 2011).”
Does Cognitively Enhanced Physical Activity Improve Executive Functions in Preschool Children? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Lakičević, N., Manojlović, M., Gentile, A., Bianco, A., Drid, P., Chichinina, E., Сергеевна, Т. К., & Zinchenko, Y. P. (2026) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-026-00366-4 · Cited by 1
“Well-developed EFs are crucial for predicting young children’s school readiness (Blair & Diamond, 2008 ; Roebers et al., 2014; Shaul & Schwartz, 2014) and academic success (Best et al., 2011; A. N. Ver - aksa et al., 2018 , 2023 ).”
Examining Subgroup Differences in School Readiness and Math Achievement in Asian American Children Through the Opportunity-Propensity Model
Medrano, J., & Miller‐Cotto, D. (2025) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2025.2548596 · Cited by 1
Does the physical fitness impact academic achievement in school children?—An exploratory study
Shah, S. S., & Diwan, S. (2025) · Bulletin of Faculty of Physical Therapy · doi:10.1186/s43161-025-00309-8 · Cited by 2
“A child’s ability to score in mathematics, science, and social science and language (core subjects) depends on the child’s ability to effectively plan memory, shift attention, or inhibit impulsive behavior [4].”
Active control enhances memory less in children with learning disabilities compared to their typically developing peers
Ding, Z., Chen, C., Wang, H., Wang, Y., Zhang, S., & Zhang, M. (2025) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2025.105111 · Cited by 3
Shifting in School-Aged Children With Developmental Language Disorder
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Understanding Learning Variability in Early Childhood: An Equity-Centered Assessment of Cognitive Regulation among Diverse Preschool Children
DeJoseph, M. L., Merculief, A., Sulik, M. J., & Obradović, J. (2025) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2025.2578816 · Cited by 2
“Unsurprisingly, early competence in these domain-general cognitive abilities have been linked with academic achievement (e.g., Allan et al., 2014; Best et al., 2011; Obradović et al., 2010; Willoughby et al., 2017), more positive peer relationships (e.g., Holmes et al., 2016), and long-term mental…”
The role of executive functions and fluid intelligence in the prediction of conditional strategy knowledge of self-regulated learning
Grobe, S. E., Könen, T., Rocker, C., Grüneisen, L., Dörrenbächer-Ulrich, L., Perels, F., & Karbach, J. (2025) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2025.101644 · Cited by 2
Fundamental motor skills, executive functions, and academic achievement of Chinese schoolchildren: Testing a mediating model
Wang, L., Sun, J., Wang, L., Zheng, D., & Zhou, Y. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0336470 · Cited by 1
“Cross-sectional studies have confirmed a strong connection between children’s EF and academic achievements in various subjects, including reading, mathematics, and spelling [21,27,28].”
The Effects of an 8-Week School-Based Basketball Intervention on Executive Function in Adolescents with Depression
Li, L., Wang, S., Zhao, Y., & Qiao, L. (2025) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-025-10673-3 · Cited by 1
A meta-analysis of the dose–response relationship between aerobic exercise and executive function in children
Wang, Y., Wang, Q., Yang, M., Li, W., Wang, L., & Fan, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1608937 · Cited by 1
Executive functions in Thai adolescents: Development of an inventory measure, its factors, and norms
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“Notably, Best, Miller, and Naglieri (2011) found that in a large representative national sample in the US that performance on three complex EF tasks improved until age 15 but not after, just as we found that in our large national Thai sample that EFs overall improved from age 13 to 15 but no…”
Early Montessori education shows delayed benefits for mathematical problem-solving in a 5-year longitudinal randomized controlled trial
Diagon, S. L., der Henst, J. V., & Prado, J. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-27687-2 · Cited by 7
“Second, the emphasis of Montessori education on self-directed activity, concentration, and deliberate practice may support the development of executive functions 14 , which have been shown to be associated with academic achievement 15 .”
Enhancing Upper Secondary Students’ Situational Engagement and Cognitive Prerequisites of Learning Through the Physically Active Academic Lessons Intervention: Protocol for a Mixed Methods Cluster Randomized Individual Crossover Trial
Syväoja, H. J., Takalo, S., Kukko, T., Salmela, N., Hakonen, H., Kulmala, J., Lindfors, H., Oksanen, H., Räsänen, P., Mäkitalo, K., et al. (2025) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/84601 · Cited by 2
“Executive functions are strong predictors of academic performance [18].”
A Psychometric Analysis of the Military Stigma Scale
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Structural network topology and cognitive control in very preterm born young adults
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“…pose significant risks, as cognitive control issues are prevalent in psychiatric and neurological conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; e.g., Boonstra et al., 2005) and depression (Snyder, 2013), and are closely linked to academic performance (Best et al., 2011).”
Neuroscience beliefs in education among teachers in Argentina and other Latin American countries: predictors and comparisons to experts' perspectives.
García, M. C., Carballo-Márquez, A., Perrin, P. B., Christ, B. R., Olabarrieta-Landa, L., Grabner, C. Y. L., Arango-Lasprilla, J., & Vergara-Moragues, E. (2026) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2026.100279 · Cited by 1
Microsystem components and EFL achievement in adolescence: A network analysis
Wang, T., Zhou, Q. F., Yin, K., Hu, H., Xu, H., Huang, J., & Chen, S. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.106379 · Cited by 1
Socioeconomic Status Disparities in Children’s Cognition—Differences in Degree or Kind?
Hu, L., & Farah, M. J. (2026) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916251409785 · Cited by 3
“EF has been linked to academic achievement (Best et al., 2011; Lawson & Farah, 2017; Titz & Karbach, 2014).”
Developmental cascades in youth social-emotional adjustment, prosocial behavior, and academic achievement
Li, G., Kiefer, S. M., Tan, T., Kim, E.-S., & Lancaster, C. (2026) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2026.101932 · Cited by 1
Music Education and Cognitive Development: A Longitudinal Investigation of Musical Training Effects on Executive Function and Academic Achievement
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Should executive functioning be included in models of reading comprehension, and if so, which aspects?
Imre, Z., & Kibby, M. Y. (2026) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2026.2636210 · Cited by 1
“It is an important aspect of cognition, with low EF being associated with poor academic achievement (Best et al., 2011; Biederman et al., 2004; Gerst et al., 2015) and a greater incidence of learning disorders (Biederman et al., 2004).”
Relations Between Executive Functions, Child Characteristics, Parental Education, and Academic Skills: A Cross-Cultural Study of Young Children in Iran and the United States
Ahmadi, A., McClelland, M. M., Geldhof, J. G., Rothwell, D. W., Hatfield, B. E., & Pourmohamadreza‐Tajrishi, M. (2026) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2026.2650768 · Cited by 1
“…conducted in high-income countries (HICs) has documented associations between early EF and school readiness skills (McClelland et al., 2007), successful transition to formal education (Schmitt et al., 2017), higher academic achievement, and better overall school performance (Best et al., 2011).”
Training rational thinking: Improvements without transfer to argument evaluation
Grimm, J., & Richter, T. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102359 · Cited by 1
Executive functions as mediators of early educational disparities by SES, gender and birth month
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“In school-aged children, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have shown that EF skills — including working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive ﬂ exibility — are associated with later performance in mathematics, reading comprehension, and general academic achievement 45 – 47 .”
The Effects of a Brief Acceptance and Commitment Intervention, a Traditional Cognitive Behavioral Intervention, and a Placebo Intervention on Evaluation Anxiety and Working Memory Performance.
Bannon, E. E., O’Brien, W. H., Peijsel, C., Teerapong, T., Uthayaratana, T., Boonyarit, I., & Chavanovanich, J. (2025) · International Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-025-00273-0
“It has also been shown to be predictive of academic outcomes (Best et al., 2011 ; Blair & Razza, 2007 ) and mathematics achievement (Coulanges et al., 2021 ).”

Authors: Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
San Francisco State University (US)
George Mason University (US)
Corresponding author: Best, John R.
ORCID: Best, John R.
Naglieri, Jack A.
Venue: Learning and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-08
Volume: 21
Issue: 4
Pages: 327-336
ISSN: 1041-6080 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
PMC: PMC3155246
OpenAlex: W2062718236
Cited by: 1,294
References: 86
Citations by year: 2026: 79 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 109 · 2022: 147 · 2021: 132 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 32.37
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Learning and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK070922, R01DK060692)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: executive function, academic performance, cognitive development, age-related changes, cognitive assessment, mathematics achievement, reading achievement, domain-general cognition, children and adolescents

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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