Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates.

Best, John R.; Miller, Patricia H.; Jones, Lara L.

doi:10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002

Cited by 1,007Developmental and Educational NeuropsychologyChild and Animal Learning DevelopmentCognitive Abilities and Testing

Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates.

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Best, John R., Miller, Patricia H., Jones, Lara L.·2009·Developmental Review

DOI 10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002PMC PMC2792574

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Abstract

Research and theorizing on executive function (EF) in childhood has been disproportionately focused on preschool age children. This review paper outlines the importance of examining EF throughout childhood, and even across the lifespan. First, examining EF in older children can address the question of whether EF is a unitary construct. The relations among the EF components, particularly as they are recruited for complex tasks, appear to change over the course of development. Second, much of the development of EF, especially working memory, shifting, and planning, occurs after age 5. Third, important applications of EF research concern the role of school-age children's EF in various aspects of school performance, as well as social functioning and emotional control. Future research needs to examine a more complete developmental span, from early childhood through late adulthood, in order to address developmental issues adequately.

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Inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility have been shown to develop in diverse trajectories.
“Inhibition, WM and cognitive flexibility, for example, have been shown to develop in diverse trajectories (Diamond, 2006; Best et al., 2009; Bellaj et al., 2016).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Best et al., 2009
According to Best et al., in contrast to preschool, adolescence consists mainly of improving speed and accuracy rather than fundamental changes.
“According to Best et al. (2009), in contrast to preschool, adolescence consists mainly of improving speed and accuracy rather than fundamental changes (e.g., learning to consistently inhibit prepotent responses).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Best et al. (2009)
Inhibition is a fundamental aspect of executive functions, which does not seem to be uniform.
“A fundamental aspect of EF is inhibition, which does not seem to be uniform (Best et al., 2009).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Best et al., 2009
Performance in planning seems to improve over time, at least into late childhood and often into adolescence.
“Performance in planning seems to improve over time, at least into late childhood and often into adolescence (Best et al., 2009).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Best et al., 2009
Inhibitory demands seem to vary depending on whether working memory is also required, on the response, as well as on the degree of prepotency of the response.
“Furthermore, inhibitory demands seem to vary depending on whether WM is also required, on the response, as well as on the degree of prepotency of the response (Best et al., 2009).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Best et al., 2009

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Ellefson MR Johnstone EL Blagrove EL Chater N Sun R 2006 July Can developmental changes in switch costs be explained by age alone? Poster presented at the 28th annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society Vancouver, BC, Canada The Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society 2476 Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum
Fischer KW Daley SG Meltzer L 2007 Connecting cognitive science and neuroscience to education: Potentials and pitfalls in inferring executive processes Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice 55 73 New York Guilford Press

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A Developmental Perspective on Executive Function
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x · Cited by 2,692 · see citing works
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The Adaptive Calibration Model of stress responsivity
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007 · Cited by 1,373 · see citing works
Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.
Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007 · Cited by 1,294 · see citing works
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Effects of physical activity on children’s executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise
Best, J. R. (2010) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001 · Cited by 1,078 · see citing works
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The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0104-1 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works
Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches
Snyder, H. R., Miyake, A., & Hankin, B. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00328 · Cited by 946 · see citing works
The unity and diversity of executive functions: A systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies
Karr, J. E., Areshenkoff, C. N., Rast, P., Hofer, S. M., Iverson, G. L., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000160 · Cited by 637 · see citing works
Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis
Verburgh, L., Königs, M., Scherder, E. J. A., & Oosterlaan, J. (2014) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsports-2012-091441 · Cited by 617 · see citing works
Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence
Prencipe, A., Kesek, A., Cohen, J., Lamm, C., Lewis, M. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Shifting ability predicts math and reading performance in children: a meta-analytical study
Yeniad, N., Malda, M., Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Pieper, S. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.004 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children
Brydges, C. R., Reid, C. L., Fox, A. M., & Anderson, M. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.05.006 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Changes and challenges in 20 years of research into the development of executive functions
Hughes, C. (2011) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.736 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
The Relationship between Executive Function and Obesity in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review
Reinert, K. R. S., Po'e, E. K., & Barkin, S. L. (2013) · Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1155/2013/820956 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Integrating and differentiating aspects of self-regulation: effortful control, executive functioning, and links to negative affectivity
Bridgett, D. J., Oddi, K. B., Laake, L. M., Murdock, K. W., & Bachmann, M. N. (2013) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0029536 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Demographic and familial predictors of early executive function development: Contribution of a person-centered perspective.
Rhoades, B. L., Greenberg, M. T., Lanza, S. T., & Blair, C. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.004 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation
Gladwin, T. E., Figner, B., Crone, E. A., & Wiers, R. W. (2011) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2011.06.008 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of the Learning to BREATHE Program on Adolescent Emotion Regulation
Metz, S. M., Frank, J. L., Reibel, D., Cantrell, T., Sanders, R., & Broderick, P. C. (2013) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2013.818488 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Executive functioning, metacognition, and self-perceived competence in elementary school children: an explorative study on their interrelations and their role for school achievement
Roebers, C. M., Cimeli, P., Röthlisberger, M., & Neuenschwander, R. (2012) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-012-9089-9 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
An 8-month randomized controlled exercise trial alters brain activation during cognitive tasks in overweight children.
Krafft, C. E., Schwarz, N. F., Chi, L., Weinberger, A. L., Schaeffer, D. J., Pierce, J. E., Rodrigue, A. L., Yanasak, N. E., Miller, P. H., Tomporowski, P. D., et al. (2014) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20518 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
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Effects of acute aerobic exercise on multiple aspects of executive function in preadolescent children
Chen, A.-G., Yan, J., Yin, H.-C., Pan, C.-Y., & Chang, Y.-K. (2014) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.06.004 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Rational thinking and cognitive sophistication: Development, cognitive abilities, and thinking dispositions.
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034910 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Far transfer to language and math of a short software-based gaming intervention.
Goldin, A. P., Hermida, M. J., Shalom, D. E., Elias Costa, M., Lopez-Rosenfeld, M., Segretin, M. S., Fernández-Slezak, D., Lipina, S. J., & Sigman, M. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1320217111 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Executive functioning in autism spectrum disorders: Influence of task and sample characteristics and relation to symptom severity
Van Eylen, L., Boets, B., Steyaert, J., Wagemans, J., & Noens, I. (2015) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0689-1 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Sleep Problems Across Development: A Pathway to Adolescent Risk Taking Through Working Memory
Thomas, A. G., Monahan, K. C., Lukowski, A. F., & Cauffman, E. (2015) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-014-0179-7 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Executive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid?
Soto, E. F., Kofler, M. J., Singh, L. J., Wells, E. L., Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., & Miller, C. E. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000681 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“Given the well-established associations between deficits in executive functions and adverse behavioral, academic, and occupational outcomes (Best et al., 2009; Kofler et al., 2016), accurate assessment of executive functions in childhood is critical for early detection and intervention efforts (Diamond, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Age Related Differences of Executive Functioning Problems in Everyday Life of Children and Adolescents in the Autism Spectrum
van den Bergh, S. F. W. M., Scheeren, A. M., Begeer, S., Koot, H. M., & Geurts, H. M. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2071-4 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
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Hartman, C. A., Geurts, H. M., Franke, B., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. J. (2016) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.003 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
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Taylor, H. G., & Clark, C. A. C. (2016) · Seminars in Perinatology · doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2016.09.004 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Associations Between Task Performance and Self-Report Measures of Cognitive Control: Shared Versus Distinct Abilities
Snyder, H. R., Friedman, N. P., & Hankin, B. L. (2021) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191120965694 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Underpinnings of the Costs of Flexibility in Preschool Children: The Roles of Inhibition and Working Memory
Chevalier, N., Sheffield, T. D., Nelson, J. M., Clark, C. A. C., Wiebe, S. A., & Espy, K. A. (2012) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2011.632458 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Developmental transformations in the structure of executive functions
Hartung, J., Engelhardt, L. E., Thibodeaux, M. L., Harden, K. P., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104681 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
The impact of digital media on children’s intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background
Sauce, B., Liebherr, M., Judd, N., & Klingberg, T. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-11341-2 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
The development of cognitive flexibility beyond the preschool period: An investigation using a modified Flexible Item Selection Task
Dick, A. S. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.01.021 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Spiraling Out of Control: Stress Generation and Subsequent Rumination Mediate the Link Between Poorer Cognitive Control and Internalizing Psychopathology
Snyder, H. R., & Hankin, B. L. (2016) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616633157 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Qualitative change in executive control during childhood and adulthood
Chevalier, N., Huber, K. L., Wiebe, S. A., & Espy, K. A. (2013) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2013.02.012 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
A framework for executive function in the late elementary years.
Cirino, P. T., Ahmed, Y., Miciak, J., Taylor, W. P., Gerst, E. H., & Barnes, M. A. (2018) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000427 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Effects of Early-Life PFAS Exposure on Child Neurodevelopment: A Review of the Evidence and Research Gaps
Ames, J. L., Sharma, V., & Lyall, K. (2025) · Current Environmental Health Reports · doi:10.1007/s40572-024-00464-5 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review
Souissi, S., Chamari, K., & Bellaj, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991699 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Mindfulness and academic performance: An example of migrant children in China
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“…et al., 2017); and (b) school-aged children’s executive functioning/cognitive control abilities also follow different developmental trajectories (Best et al., 2009; Best & Miller, 2010), with working memory and inhibitory control reflecting unique executive functions in early childhood (Lerner…”
Background

Authors: Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Jones, L. L.
Affiliations: University of Georgia (US)
Wayne State University (US)
Corresponding author: Miller, Patricia H.
ORCID: Best, John R.
Jones, Lara L.
Venue: Developmental Review
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2009-09
Volume: 29
Issue: 3
Pages: 180-200
ISSN: 0273-2297 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2009.05.002
PMC: PMC2792574
OpenAlex: W2112778881
Cited by: 1,007
References: 151
Citations by year: 2026: 40 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 132 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 64 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 67 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 65 · 2012: 41
FWCI: 42.31
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Developmental Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK070922)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: executive function, cognitive development, elementary school students, working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning, academic performance, social functioning, emotional control, lifespan development

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Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates.

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