Cited by 1,294Developmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and TestingEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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Best, John R., Miller, Patricia H., Naglieri, Jack A.·2011·Learning and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007PMC PMC3155246

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Abstract

This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.

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“These behavioral findings align with both structural (e.g., Gogtay et al., 2004) and functional imaging studies (e.g., Casey et al., 1997; Durston et al., 2006) reporting a protracted development of the neural substrate supporting EF.”
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“These results are consistent with claims in Best et al. (2011).”
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“Furthermore, the close correlations between EFs and school performance documented at this stage of development (Best et al., 2011; Welsh et al., 2010) can create an optimal time to transfer the cognitive gains associated with cognitive training to children's school performance.”
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“Cognitive development is a protracted process, and brain regions involved, such as medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), continue to mature into early adulthood [1 – 5], coinciding with increased and optimized cognitive capacity [6 – 8].”
Indoor Environment and Health Effects: Protocol of an Exploratory Panel Study among Young Adults in China (China IEHE Study)
Liu, S., Wang, W., Zhao, Y., Li, L., Zhang, W., Ji, X., Yang, D., Chen, Y., Guo, X., & Deng, F. (2024) · Environment & Health · doi:10.1021/envhealth.4c00051 · Cited by 5
Moderating role of peer relations and executive functioning on the relationship between self-efficacy, empathy & social skills
Rashid, S., Shaukat, A., & Ahmed, M. A. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06676-0 · Cited by 7
“Studies such as those conducted by Best et al. (2021) support this interaction effect.”
The Homework, Organization, and Planning Skills (HOPS) Intervention
Langberg, J. M., Breaux, R., Dvorsky, M. R., Molitor, S. J., Smith, Z. R., & Bourchtein, E. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429453106-24 · Cited by 6
Toward the 4th Agenda 2030 Goal
Tegon, R. (2021) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7638-0.ch025 · Cited by 5
Factores de la capacidad intelectual y de la función ejecutiva relacionados con el rendimiento académico en estudiantes universitarios
Arenas, D. A. M., Zapata, E. M. B., Soto, C. M. D., & Pineda, D. A. (2021) · Medicina UPB · doi:10.18566/medupb.v40n1.a03 · Cited by 10
Food Addiction Features Are Related to Worse Academic Performance in Adolescents
Reche-García, C., Martínez, P. S., Díaz, M. G., Martínez, D. G., Moreno, I. M., & Morante, J. J. H. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00724-7 · Cited by 5
“Academic performance was employed as a surrogate measurement of cognitive performance, in the same way as other previous works (Alloway & Alloway, 2010; Best et al., 2011), and considering its Mesh definition: “A quantitative or qualitative measure of intellectual, scholarly, or scholastic accomplishment.”
Method
The Role of Grandparental Sensitivity and Parental Sensitivity in Infant Cognitive Development in China: A Pilot Study
Li, W., Emmen, R. A. G., Woudstra, M. J., Branger, M. C. E., Wang, L.-M., Alink, L. R. A., & Mesman, J. (2022) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-021-02207-8 · Cited by 5
“EF emerges as early as in the first year of life (Best et al., 2011) and is critical for later academic achievement (e.g., Sulik et al., 2018), better language development (e.g., Müller et al., 2009), better motor performance (e.g., Livesey et al., 2006) and fewer behavioral problems (e.g., Hughes…”
Background
Cognitive Flexibility + Phonics Intervention Effects on Reading Gains
Vadasy, P. F., & Sanders, E. A. (2023) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2023.2166636 · Cited by 14
The contributions of executive functioning to handwritten and keyboarded compositions in Year 2 children
Valcan, D. S., Malpique, A., Pino‐Pasternak, D., Asıl, M., & Teo, T. P. (2024) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2024.102272 · Cited by 8
Early Executive Function and Mathematics Relations: Correlation Does Not Ensure Concordance
Mazzocco, M. M. M., Chan, J. Y., & Bock, A. M. (2017) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2017.05.001 · Cited by 5
Assessment of the Effects of Digital Educational Material on Executive Function Performance
Nieto-Márquez, N. L., Martínez, A. C., Baldominos, A., Petronila, A. G., & Nieto, M. Á. P. (2020) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.545709 · Cited by 9
An ecological view of executive function in young children: Variation in and predictors of executive function skills over one school year
Barnes, S. P., Jones, S. M., & Bailey, R. J. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13355 · Cited by 7
How to Promote Attentional Efficacy and Cognitive Control Processes: Experience in Argentine School Children
Ison, M. S. (2020) · Psychology & Psychological Research International Journal · doi:10.23880/pprij-16000255 · Cited by 4
Editorial to the special issue on ‘On mechanisms of cognitive training and transfer in development’
Steinbeis, N., & McCrory, E. J. P. (2019) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12932 · Cited by 5
The highs and lows of mathematical ability: Shared and distinct longitudinal predictors of mathematical ability grouping
Cheng, S., Bull, R., Burns, E. C., & Múñez, D. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102570 · Cited by 8
Individual differences in executive functions and theory of mind mediate the relation between academic skills from kindergarten to 5th grade
Diagon, S. L., Jacquel, M., der Henst, J. V., & Prado, J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0324547 · Cited by 4
“Indeed, studies have shown either cross-sectional associations or short-term longitudinal relations between measures of executive functions and success in reading and math in both kindergarten [38–40] and elementary school [41–43].”
Executive function intervention in the school context: A scoping review
Cassiano, R. G. M., Engeroff, M. A., Cidade, B. G., Martins, M. E. D. O., Barros, S. B. D. T., Canevazzi, S. G. L., Gaspardo, C. M., Dias, N. M., & Cardoso, C. D. O. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2025.2579203 · Cited by 4
Family socioeconomic status, executive function and children’s academic achievement: gender differences
Ming, H., Zhang, F., Ren, Y., Jiang, Y., & Huang, S. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09060-2 · Cited by 5
“…working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility, enable children to hold and manipulate information, resist distractions, and adapt to changing task demands, are robust longitudinal predictors of academic achievement (Best et al., 2011; Jacob & Parkinson, 2015; Pascual et al., 2019).”
School entry skills and young adult outcomes
Burchinal, M., & Vandell, D. L. (2025) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2025.01.004 · Cited by 6
How do different executive function components contribute to children's academic skills?
He, J., Xu, R., Yang, Y., Hoof, J. V., & Yang, X. (2025) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2025.101589 · Cited by 6
Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet and Its Association with Cognitive Function in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review of Observational Studies
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“Some relevant domains of cognitive functions that are closely related to learning and academic achievement in children and adolescents are attention [14], memory [11,15], language [16], creativity [17], and executive functions [18].”
Large-scale examination of hot and cool executive function in children born preterm
Menu, I., Duffy, M., Bhatia, T., Trapaga, S., John, J., Music, S., Nicholas, D., Yim, S., & Thomason, M. E. (2025) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101593 · Cited by 5
“EFs are for example associated with academic success (Ahmed et al., 2019; Best et al., 2011; Willoughby et al., 2019), and physical and mental health (Demetriou et al., 2018; Miller and Barnes., 2011; Yeo et al., 2021).”
Dedifferentiation and Transfer in Executive Function and Math Ability Following a Five‐Year Abacus Training in Schoolchildren
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Intervenção com exergames
Fronza, F. C. A. O., Ferrari, E. P., de Freitas, K. T. D., & Cardoso, F. L. (2020) · ETD - Educação Temática Digital · doi:10.20396/etd.v22i1.8654037 · Cited by 5
Validation of an e-instrument for assessing five-year-old children’s development in Estonia: a comparison of children’s skills and teachers’ evaluations
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“In line with a number of previous studies (Reid et al. 2014; Best et al. 2011; Vitiello and Williford 2021; McClelland, Acock, and Morrison 2006) and our H1, children ’ s outcomes in assessed developmental areas are positively related.”
Influential
Balancing academics and athletics: School-level athletes’ results are positively associated with their academic performance
Kuroda, Y., Ishihara, T., & Kamijo, K. (2023) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2023.100210 · Cited by 7
School (socie)ties: individual and school level differences in the association between ethnic/racial victimization and academic functioning
da Cunha, J. M., & Santo, J. B. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1000328 · Cited by 4
Unraveling the relationship between executive function and mind wandering in childhood ADHD
Hasan, F., Shah, H. P., Kam, J. W. Y., & Murias, K. (2024) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2024.2435545 · Cited by 6
“According to many studies, EF skills can predict children’s educational, cognitive, emotional, and social success (Best et al., 2009, 2011; Gerst et al., 2017; Peng et al., 2018).”
How executive function contributed to young children’s mathematical achievement: The differential role of non-symbolic and symbolic numerical representation
Zhang, J., Zhang, Y., Qi, Y., Gao, C., Shen, Z., & Chen, Y. (2025) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2025.101545 · Cited by 6
Learning Process During Risk Detection in Adolescents With ADHD
Medrano, E., Flóres-Lázaro, J. C., & Nicolini, H. (2015) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715573995 · Cited by 5
Moving to Capture Children’s Attention: Developing a Methodology for Measuring Visuomotor Attention
Hill, L. J. B., Coats, R. O., Mushtaq, F., Williams, J. H. G., Aucott, L. S., & Mon-Williams, M. A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159543 · Cited by 4
“set-shifting ability, inhibition control and cognitive flexibility) mature throughout childhood [60,65].”
BackgroundInfluential
Determinants of Students’ Academic Performance in Higher Learning Institutions in Tanzania
Kapinga, O. S., & Amani, J. (2016) · Journal of Education and Human Development · doi:10.15640/jehd.v5n3a8 · Cited by 5
Validation and normalization of the Japanese version of BRIEF among junior high school students
Momoda, M., Asano, R., Nagatani, F., Miyagawa, H., Nakanishi, M., Yasuda, Y., Shibata, M., Hashimoto, R., Mohri, I., & Taniike, M. (2017) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.88.16215 · Cited by 4
Full- Versus Part-Day Kindergarten for Children With Disabilities: Effects on Executive Function Skills
Gottfried, M. A., & Little, M. H. (2017) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2017.1408372 · Cited by 6
An Overview of the Bilingual Advantage: History, Mechanisms, and Consequences
Zhang, M. (2018) · Western Undergraduate Psychology Journal · Cited by 4
The quality of the assignment matters in hypermedia learning
Paans, C., Segers, E., Molenaar, I., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12294 · Cited by 4
“It has also been related to academic achievement in general (e.g., Alloway & Alloway, 2010; Best, Miller, & Naglieri, 2011; Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007).”

Authors: Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
San Francisco State University (US)
George Mason University (US)
Corresponding author: Best, John R.
ORCID: Best, John R.
Naglieri, Jack A.
Venue: Learning and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-08
Volume: 21
Issue: 4
Pages: 327-336
ISSN: 1041-6080 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
PMC: PMC3155246
OpenAlex: W2062718236
Cited by: 1,294
References: 86
Citations by year: 2026: 79 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 109 · 2022: 147 · 2021: 132 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 32.37
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Learning and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK070922, R01DK060692)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: executive function, academic performance, cognitive development, age-related changes, cognitive assessment, mathematics achievement, reading achievement, domain-general cognition, children and adolescents

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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