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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.
Open accessAbstract
This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.
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“The difficulty of EF can be detrimental to academic performance in novel situations or when complex problem solving is necessary (Best et al., 2011).”
From Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review (2022) · cites this paper as Best et al., 2011
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“cognitive control has been established as a determining factor of academic performance [35,36].”
From Lifestyle Habits Predict Academic Performance in High School Students: The Adolescent Student Academic Performance Longitudinal Study (ASAP) (2019) · cites this paper as [35]
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“These behavioral findings align with both structural (e.g., Gogtay et al., 2004) and functional imaging studies (e.g., Casey et al., 1997; Durston et al., 2006) reporting a protracted development of the neural substrate supporting EF.”
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“It has been well documented that EFs are closely associated with academic performance [13,14], indicating any relationship between PA and EFs might be especially important to the effective functioning of school aged children.”
BackgroundTrait anxiety and adolescent's academic achievement: The role of executive function
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“Here, we capitalize on the improved interpretability of longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons afforded by using the same tasks across all participants (Best and Miller, 2010) with our ACE-C battery to shine light on the relatively understudied period of middle childhood (∼7–12 years old), the developmental stag…”
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“They have been linked to educational outcomes (e.g., school readiness, early literacy and numeracy, academic achievement; Ahmed et al., 2019; Best et al., 2011), as well as psychosocial and physical health (Liang et al., 2014; Reinert et al., 2013).”
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“2008) as well as executive functioning and intelligence (Arán Filippetti and Richaud 2016; Best et al. 2011).”
BackgroundShort-Term and Long-Term Educational Outcomes of Infants Born Moderately and Late Preterm
Townley-Flores, C., Gerstein, A., Phibbs, C. S., & Sanders, L. (2021) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.12.070 · Cited by 29
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The impact of bilingualism on executive function in adolescents
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“EF develop as children grow older (Best et al., 2011; Huizinga et al., 2006).”
Chan, J. S., & Wade‐Woolley, L. (2016) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12083 · Cited by 30
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“…domain and EF components (e.g., Altemeier et al., 2008, in literacy; Bull & Scerif, 2001; van der Ven, Kroesbergen, Boom, & Leseman, 2012, in numeracy) or between different scholastic skills and an EF composite score (e.g., Best et al., 2011; Röthlisberger, Neuenschwander, Cimeli, & Roebers, 2013).”
BackgroundMotor Skills and Executive Function Contribute to Early Achievement in East Asia and the Pacific
Zhang, L., Sun, J., Richards, B., Davidson, K. C., & Rao, N. (2018) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2018.1510204 · Cited by 28
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Brain activity in struggling readers before intervention relates to future reading gains
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“The findings indicate that children with strongmath skills who are from low-income families are in a better position to develop stronger IC skills (Best et al., 2011; Blair & Razza, 2007; Fuhs et al., 2014).”
BackgroundVisier‐Alfonso, M. E., Sánchez‐López, M., Martínez‐Vizcaíno, V., Jiménez‐López, E., Redondo‐Tébar, A., & Nieto, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0231246 · Cited by 35
“Several studies support that executive functions underlie the selection, planning and monitoring of goal-directed processes [1], which are involved in more complex processes such as perception, attention or memory [8].”
BackgroundThe Role of Executive Function Skills in the Development of Children’s Mathematical Competencies
Gilmore, C. K., & Cragg, L. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811529-9.00014-5 · Cited by 34
Chang, I. (2019) · Journal of Early Childhood Research · doi:10.1177/1476718x19875768 · Cited by 39
“When looking into the influences on individual differences in reading comprehension, the results of this study are consistent with the prior literature suggesting that all three components of EF made unique contributions in explaining reading comprehension (Best et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultTomaszewski, B. R., Hepburn, S., Blakeley‐Smith, A., & Rogers, S. J. (2020) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-125.3.155 · Cited by 30
Rhythm in the blood: The influence of rhythm skills on literacy development in third graders
Lê, M., Quémart, P., Potocki, A., Gimenes, M., Chesnet, D., & Lambert, E. G. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104880 · Cited by 35
Relational thinking: An overlooked component of executive functioning
Starr, A., Leib, E. R., Younger, J. W., Uncapher, M. R., & Bunge, S. A. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13320 · Cited by 33
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Associations Between Cool and Hot Executive Functions and Children’s Eating Behavior
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Beneficial Effects of Acute Exercise on Executive Function in Adolescents
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“Moreover, this pattern of greater gray matter decline in heavy users occurred largely in regions responsible for emotion, memory, mental flexibility, and decision making, all of which might have a direct impact on student college success (Best et al., 2011).”
BackgroundExecutive functioning skills and (low) math achievement in primary and secondary school
Iglesias-Sarmiento, V., Carriedo, N., Rodríguez‐Villagra, O. A., & Pérez, L. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105715 · Cited by 35
Behavioral and fMRI evidence of the differing cognitive load of domain-specific assessments
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Executive Functioning and Narrative Language in Children With Dyslexia
Fisher, E. L., Barton-Hulsey, A., Walters, C., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2019) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2019_ajslp-18-0106 · Cited by 30
Wang, K., Banich, M. T., Reineberg, A. E., Leopold, D. R., Willcutt, E. G., Cutting, L. E., Tufo, S. N. D., Thompson, L. A., Opfer, J. E., Kanayet, F. J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12201 · Cited by 24
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The relationship between executive functioning and self‐regulated learning in Australian children
Davis, H. L., Valcan, D. S., & Pino‐Pasternak, D. (2021) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12391 · Cited by 30
Ellis, A., Ahmed, S. F., Zeytinoglu, S., Isbell, E., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., Grammer, J. K., Gehring, W. J., Morrison, F. J., & Davis-Kean, P. E. (2021) · Journal of Numerical Cognition · doi:10.5964/jnc.7047 · Cited by 30
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“Furthermore, longitudinal studies also show the predictive value of WM measures for development in mathematics (Best et al., 2011; Lefevre et al., 2013). In a study using a dual-task paradigm by Clearman et al. (2017), it was demonstrated that WM performance decreases when participants have to perform an arithmetic ta…”
BackgroundInhibitory control as a significant predictor of academic performance in Chinese high schoolers
Privitera, A. J., Zhou, Y., & Xie, X. (2022) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2022.2098941 · Cited by 29
“Best et al., 2011).”
BackgroundDyck, D. V., Baijot, S., Aeby, A., Tiège, X. D., & Deconinck, N. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.860766 · Cited by 34
“Moreover, given the relationship between executive functions on the one hand and school achievement (Best et al., 2011; Gerst et al., 2017; Oberer et al., 2018), social development (e.”
BackgroundZhang, D., Hong, J., Chen, S., & Liu, Y. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13886-3 · Cited by 29
Physical activity is the best buy in medicine, but perhaps for less obvious reasons
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Executive Functioning in Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults with Chronic Kidney Disease
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Post‐conflict slowing effects in monolingual and bilingual children
Grundy, J. G., & Chahi, A. K. (2016) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12488 · Cited by 26
“Similarly, tasks that do not explicitly require inhibition, such as multitasking in dual task paradigms, are also performed better by bilingual children, even though no inhibition appears to be involved (Bialystok, 2011).”
BackgroundViola, A., Balsamo, L. M., Neglia, J. P., Brouwers, P. Y., Ma, X., & Kadan‐Lottick, N. S. (2017) · Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology · doi:10.1097/mph.0000000000000761 · Cited by 26
Rendimiento escolar y condiciones de pobreza: el rol mediador de las funciones ejecutivas
Korzeniowski, C., Cupani, M., Ison, M. S., & de Anglat, H. D. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology · doi:10.14204/ejrep.40.15152 · Cited by 29
Cognitive stimulation in children at social risk: its transference to school performance
Korzeniowski, C., Ison, M. S., & de Anglat, H. D. (2017) · International journal of psychological research · doi:10.21500/20112084.2760 · Cited by 36
Hartstein, L. E., LeBourgeois, M. K., & Berthier, N. E. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202973 · Cited by 30
“In addition, the main effect of Phase for reaction time on switch trials suggests that children in the experimental group gained significantly greater accuracy on switch trials than participants in the control group without sacrificing speed, consistent with results from previous work measuring the relationship betwee…”
ResultSleep development in preschool predicts executive functioning in early elementary school
Bernier, A., Cimon‐Paquet, C., & Tétreault, É. (2020) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2020.08.005 · Cited by 28
Advancing Educational Research on Children’s Self-Regulation With Observational Measures
Eberhart, J., Koepp, A. E., Howard, S. J., Kok, R., McCoy, D. C., & Baker, S. T. (2022) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/07342829221143208 · Cited by 34
“, 2013), including how these differences predict development in other areas such as children’s academic achievement (Best et al., 2011; Blair et al., 2015; Blair & Razza, 2007; von Suchodoletz et al., 2015).”
BackgroundReading comprehension in university students: relevance of PASS theory of intelligence
Georgiou, G. K., & Das, J. P. (2012) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2012.01542.x · Cited by 25
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“There is a substantive literature linking EF with long-term academic and vocational outcomes (Best et al., 2011; Moffitt et al., 2011), such as inhibition and academic ability (van der Schoot et al., 2000).”
BackgroundJones, J. D., Boyd, R. C., Calkins, M. E., Moore, T. M., Ahmed, A., Barzilay, R., Benton, T. D., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13239 · Cited by 25
Executive function in HIV-affected children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analyses
Rowe, K., Buivydaite, R., Heinsohn, T., Rahimzadeh, M., Wagner, R. G., Scerif, G., & Stein, A. L. (2021) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2021.1873232 · Cited by 25
“EF is important because it has been associated with various functional outcomes (Best et al., 2011; Koike © 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group CONTACT Kirsten Rowe kirstenrowe@gmail.com, kirsten.rowe@psych.ox.ac.uk Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford…”
BackgroundNavarrete, F. C., Román, P. Á. L., MONTILLA, J. A. P., Álvarez, C., & Delgado‐Floody, P. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13061799 · Cited by 25
“Executive function plays an important role in children’s and adolescents’ academic performance [4].”
BackgroundReducing adverse impact in high-stakes testing
Burgoyne, A. P., Mashburn, C. A., & Engle, R. W. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101561 · Cited by 27
Vernucci, S., Juric, L. C., & Richard’s, M. M. (2022) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-022-01647-1 · Cited by 32
Escobar, J., Díaz, R. R., Cerić, F., Aparicio, A., Arango, P. S., Arroyo, R., Espinoza, V., Garolera, M., Pizarro, M., Porflitt, F., et al. (2018) · Culture and Education · doi:10.1080/11356405.2018.1462903 · Cited by 25
Zorza, J. P., Marino, J., & Mesas, A. A. (2017) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431617737624 · Cited by 27
“This is particularly relevant in early adolescence, when the students are more sensitive to the opinions of others and there is a sustained development of their self-regulation abilities (Best et al., 2009; Best et al., 2011; Crone, 2009; Shulman et al., 2015).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialInclusion of Theory for Evidence-Based School Counseling Practice and Scholarship
Lemberger‐Truelove, M. E., Ceballos, P. L., Molina, C. E., & Dehner, J. M. (2020) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x20903576 · Cited by 27
“Each of these student outcomes is a strong predictor of constructive school behaviors, such as academic achievement and social prowess (Best et al., 2011; Klem & Connell, 2004).”
BackgroundJolles, D., Mennigen, E., Gupta, M. W., Hegarty, C. E., Bearden, C. E., & Karlsgodt, K. H. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117202 · Cited by 24
“We hypothesized that individuals with better reading achievement would have better executive functions and complex cognition (e.g., Best et al., 2011 ; Mayes et al., 2009 ; Zelazo et al., 2016 ), and that this would be reflected in the connectivity of functional networks known to contribute to…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialEffect of cognitively engaging physical activity on executive functions in children
Bulten, R., Bedard, C., Graham, J. D., & Cairney, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841192 · Cited by 32
“Of these subdomains, EFs in particular have been shown to be positively related to academic achievement, in children ages 5–17 (Best et al., 2011), and it is thought that improvements in EFs facilitate improvements in academic performance (van der Niet et al.”
BackgroundPerinatal HIV Status and Executive Function During School-Age and Adolescence
Ezeamama, A. E., Kizza, F. N., Zalwango, S. K., Nkwata, A. K., Zhang, M., Rivera, M. L., Sekandi, J. N., Kakaire, R., Kiwanuka, N., & Whalen, C. C. (2016) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000003438 · Cited by 24
“until elementary school and beyond.(14) Children with deficient EF are limited in their ability to hold things in mind, step back and reflect, have difficulty undertaking multiple tasks, making”
Backgroundde Vries, M., de Ruiter, M. A., Oostrom, K. J., Meeteren, A. Y. N. S., Maurice‐Stam, H., Oosterlaan, J., & Grootenhuis, M. A. (2017) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2017.1350262 · Cited by 24
Lang, C., Brand, S., Colledge, F., Ludyga, S., Pühse, U., & Gerber, M. (2018) · Journal of sport and health science/Journal of Sport and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2018.03.002 · Cited by 30
“Research also shows that single PA episodes have positive effects on executive function,(67) which in turn is an important indicator of academic achievement.(68) Another question is whether sleep and psychological functioning will be impaired among adolescents who inaccurately overestimate their PA levels if they shif…”
BackgroundThe Relationship Between Language and Planning in Children With Language Impairment
Larson, C., Gangopadhyay, I., Kaushanskaya, M., & Weismer, S. E. (2019) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2019_jslhr-l-18-0367 · Cited by 25
Cognitive Development and Culture
Gauvain, M., & Perez, S. M. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy220 · Cited by 23
Mücke, M., Andrä, C., Gerber, M., Pühse, U., & Ludyga, S. (2017) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2017.1326619 · Cited by 23
Lopera, D. A. T., Morales, V. M., Brand, S. M. R., & Restrepo, N. E. G. (2018) · CES Psicología · doi:10.21615/cesp.11.2.3 · Cited by 23
No evidence for effects of Turkish immigrant children‘s bilingualism on executive functions
Jaekel, N., Jaekel, J., Willard, J. A., & Leyendecker, B. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209981 · Cited by 27
Dong, Y., Clements, D. H., Sarama, J. H., Dumas, D., Banse, H. W., & Day-Hess, C. A. (2020) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2020.1777070 · Cited by 25
“EF processes correlated with both mathematics and reading achievement and similarly across a wide age span (5 to 17 years), suggesting they are general cognitive processes that significantly support academic learning (Best et al., 2011; Neuenschwander et al., 2012).”
BackgroundCognition in context: Validating group-based executive function assessments in young children
Ahmed, S. F., Grammer, J. K., & Morrison, F. D. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105131 · Cited by 28
Bonifacci, P., Trambagioli, N., Bernabini, L., & Tobia, V. (2021) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-021-00528-2 · Cited by 32
Cucu-Ciuhan, G., & Iliescu, D. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103420 · Cited by 28
Executive function and mathematics in preschool children: Training and transfer effects
Prager, E. O., Ernst, J. R., Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Carlson, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105663 · Cited by 26
Zhang, D., Shi, L., Zhu, X., Chen, S., & Liu, Y. (2023) · Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness · doi:10.1016/j.jesf.2023.09.004 · Cited by 36
Cognitive flexibility children across the transition to school: A longitudinal study
Yeniad, N., Malda, M., Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Emmen, R. A. G., & Prevoo, M. J. L. (2014) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2014.02.004 · Cited by 27
Correlation of Motor Abilities and Executive Functions in Children With ADHD
Ziereis, S., & Jansen, P. (2016) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2015.1038746 · Cited by 27
Assessing Executive Functions in Preschoolers Using Shape School Task
Nieto, M., Ros, L., Medina, G., Ricarte, J. J., & Latorre, J. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01489 · Cited by 23
“…al., 2010; Miller and Marcovitch, 2015), the preschool years have been identified as a crucial period in the emergence and development of EF (Espy, 1997; Carlson, 2005; Garon et al., 2008; Howard et al., 2015), which continue to develop across middle childhood and adolescence (Best et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodThe Gender Revolution in Context: How Later Tracking in Education Benefits Girls
Scheeren, L., van de Werfhorst, H. G., & Bol, T. (2018) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soy025 · Cited by 25
Metadata
- Authors
- Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A.
- Affiliations
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- San Francisco State University (US)
- George Mason University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Best, John R.
- Venue
- Learning and Individual Differences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-08
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 327-336
- ISSN
- 1041-6080 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3155246
- OpenAlex
- W2062718236
- Cited by
- 1,294
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 79 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 109 · 2022: 147 · 2021: 132 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 32.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Learning and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK070922, R01DK060692)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- executive function, academic performance, cognitive development, age-related changes, cognitive assessment, mathematics achievement, reading achievement, domain-general cognition, children and adolescents
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