Cited by 1,294Developmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and TestingEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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Best, John R., Miller, Patricia H., Naglieri, Jack A.·2011·Learning and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007PMC PMC3155246

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Abstract

This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.

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Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood
Gauvain, M. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108955676 · Cited by 24
Scene saliencies in egocentric vision and their creation by parents and infants
Anderson, E. M., Seemiller, E. S., & Smith, L. B. (2022) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105256 · Cited by 12
Associations between executive function and early math and literacy skills in preschool children
Ernst, J. R., Grenell, A., & Carlson, S. M. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100201 · Cited by 30
“children and a meta-analysis with samples from multiple countries have called this finding into question by reporting similarly moderate relations between EF and math as between EF and literacy at various ages (Best et al., 2011; Jacob & Parkinson, 2015).”
Background
16 Weeks of Physically Active Mathematics and English Language Lessons Improves Cognitive Function and Gross Motor Skills in Children Aged 8–9 Years
Boat, R., Cooper, S. B., Carlevaro, F., Magno, F., Bardaglio, G., Musella, G., & Magistro, D. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416751 · Cited by 22
“Rather, it is postulate that the improvements seen in cognition will ultimately translate to enhanced learning and educational outcomes [40].”
Background
The componential nature of arithmetical cognition: some important questions
Dowker, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1188271 · Cited by 24
“Other executive functions are also highly important to mathematical skills Many studies indicate that executive functions are related both cross-sectionally and longitudinally to arithmetical performance (Mazzocco and Kover, 2007; Passolunghi et al., 2007; Best et al., 2011; Clark et al., 2013; Bull and Lee, 2014).”
Teacher Evaluations of Executive Functioning in Schoolchildren Aged 9–12 and the Influence of Age, Sex, Level of Parental Education
van Tetering, M. A. J., & Jolles, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00481 · Cited by 24
“Many researchers have found that EFs were predictive for academic achievements in general (Best et al., 2011; Diamond, 2013; Kautz et al., 2014; Baars et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
The Role of Self-Regulation in Academic and Behavioral Paths to a High School Diploma
Cambron, C., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Guttmannova, K., Herrenkohl, T. I., Hemphill, S. A., & Hawkins, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology · doi:10.1007/s40865-017-0066-5 · Cited by 20
“In addition, research with adolescents has demonstrated links between both executive function deficits and poor self-regulation and increased behavioral problems as measured by aggression, bullying, delinquency, and illegal substance use, as well as clinical diagnoses such as conduct disorder, oppositional defiant dis…”
Background
Updating and Not Shifting Predicts Learning Performance in Young and Middle‐Aged Adults
Gijselaers, H. J. M., Meijs, C. J. C., Neroni, J., Kirschner, P. A., & de Groot, R. H. M. (2017) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12147 · Cited by 19
“A study (Best et al., 2011) investigating the relation between EFs and learning performance from ages of 5 to 17 in a large sample reported on complex EF, which can be seen as common EF, as mentioned earlier.”
BackgroundMethodResult
Neural activity patterns between different executive tasks are more similar in adulthood than in adolescence
Moisala, M., Salmela, V. R., Carlson, S., Salmela‐Aro, K., Lonka, K., Hakkarainen, K., & Alho, K. (2018) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1063 · Cited by 22
Executive Functioning Mediates Predictions of Youth Academic and Social Development from Parenting Behavior
Fenesy, M. C., & Lee, S. S. (2018) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2018.1525384 · Cited by 22
“With respect to the specific EF dimensions, inhibitory control and working memory predicted academic outcomes in early adolescence, replicating prior studies examining academic achievement across development (Best et al., 2011; Samuels, Tournaki, Blackman, & Zilinski, 2016).”
Result
Relationships between intelligence, executive function and academic achievement in children born very preterm
Dai, D. W. T., Wouldes, T. A., Brown, G., Tottman, A. C., Alsweiler, J. M., Gamble, G. D., & Harding, J. E. (2020) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2020.105122 · Cited by 25
Executive Functions as Predictors of School Performance and Social Relationships: Primary and Secondary School Students – ERRATUM
Zorza, J. P., Marino, J., & Mesas, A. A. (2016) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2016.37 · Cited by 21
School ACTIVE, brain active: A meta-analysis and meta-regression on chronic school physical activity effects on cognitive performance in children and adolescents
Mello, J. B., Costa, R. R., da Silva, F. F., Martins, R., & Cristi‐Montero, C. (2024) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100658 · Cited by 25
Poor Executive Functions among Children with Moderate-into-Severe Asthma: Evidence from WCST Performance
Taha, H. Y. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00793 · Cited by 19
“However, due to the fact the learning skills are contributed by EF (Kehagia et al., 2010; Best et al., 2011), poor EF among the Asthmatic group might be suggested to be associated with their learning difficulties.”
Background
Chronic early trauma impairs emotion recognition and executive functions in youth; specifying biobehavioral precursors of risk and resilience
Motsan, S., Yirmiya, K., & Feldman, R. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579421000067 · Cited by 22
The effects of light physical activity on learning in adolescents: a systematic review
Chim, H. Q., Gijselaers, H. J. M., de Groot, R. H. M., Gerven, P. W. M. V., Egbrink, M. G. A. O., & Savelberg, H. H. C. M. (2021) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2021.2001837 · Cited by 19
“…to include academic performance and academic-performance-related cognitive functions, the latter including but not limited to executive functions (Best et al., 2011; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Diamond, 2013; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006), memory (Hassevoort et al., 2016), processing speed…”
Background
Predicting Math Ability Using Working Memory, Number Sense, and Neurophysiology in Children and Adults
van Bueren, N. E. R., van der Ven, S. H. G., Karin Roelofs, A., Kadosh, R. C., & Kroesbergen, E. H. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12050550 · Cited by 19
How pom cheerleading improves the executive function of preschool children: the mediating role of speed and agility
Wang, H., Ge, W., Zhu, C., Sun, Y., & Wei, S. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00944-z · Cited by 20
“Individual differences caused by a differentiated development level of executive function will produce a series of influences in the following areas, such as the preparedness for school admission [57], academic achievement [58], behavioral adjustment [59] and comprehension ability [60].”
BackgroundInfluential
Acute enhancement of executive functions through cognitively challenging physical activity games in elementary physical education
Kolovelonis, A., & Γούδας, Μ. (2022) · European Physical Education Review · doi:10.1177/1356336x221135139 · Cited by 17
“For example, Best et al. (2011) found positive correlations between children and adolescents’ executive functions and their performance in reading and mathematics tasks.”
Background
The FAS fluency test in Brazilian children and teenagers: executive demands and the effects of age and gender
Dias, N. M., & Seabra, A. G. (2014) · Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria · doi:10.1590/0004-282x20130213 · Cited by 17
Examining the effectiveness of guided inquiry with problem-solving process and cognitive function training in a high school chemistry course
Tornee, N., Bunterm, T., Lee, K. L., & Muchimapura, S. (2019) · Pedagogies An International Journal · doi:10.1080/1554480x.2019.1597722 · Cited by 23
Executive Functioning in Pediatric Solid Organ Transplant Recipients: A Meta-analytic Review
Cushman, G. K., Stolz, M. G., Blount, R. L., & Reed, B. (2019) · Transplantation · doi:10.1097/tp.0000000000002954 · Cited by 17
Relation of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to basic number skills and arithmetic fact retrieval in children
Orbach, L., Herzog, M., & Fritz, A. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103697 · Cited by 20
“MusiMath” - a music-based intervention program for learning patterns and symmetry
Azaryahu, L., & Adi‐Japha, E. (2020) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2020.1799316 · Cited by 19
“In order to learn and solve problems, children need to use EF skills: to plan ahead, focus attention, remember past experiences, and control, supervise, or regulate their own thinking and behavior (Best et al., 2011; McClelland et al., 2007; Zelazo, 2015).”
Background
A situation-specific approach to measure attention in adults with ADHD: The everyday life attention scale (ELAS)
Groen, Y., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Tucha, L., Weisbrod, M., Aschenbrenner, S., & Tucha, O. M. (2018) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2018.1437730 · Cited by 22
“These situations are common in educational settings and attention performance in these situations as well as executive functioning may share a role in academic achievement (Best et al., 2011).”
Background
Measuring and Improving Executive Functioning in the Classroom
Kavanaugh, B. C., Tuncer, Ö. F., & Wexler, B. E. (2018) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0095-y · Cited by 22
“EF has been associated with core academic achievement in reading Berninger et al. 2017; Best et al. 2011; Cantin et al. 2016; Georgiou and Das 2016; Jacobson et al. 2017; Rose et al. 2011; Sirois et al. 2016; Will et al. 2017) mathematics (Cantin et al. 2016; Rose et al. 2011; Sirois et al. 2016;…”
Background
Modality and redundancy effects, and their relation to executive functioning in children with dyslexia
Campen, C. A. N. K., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2019) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2019.04.007 · Cited by 17
School‐Age Children With ASD
Bauminger‐Zviely, N. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118911389.hautc06 · Cited by 17
Examining an executive function rating scale as a predictor of achievement in children at risk for behavior problems.
Sadeh, S. S., Burns, M. K., & Sullivan, A. L. (2012) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000012 · Cited by 21
Executive functions and social cognition from early childhood to pre-adolescence: A systematic review
Badarneh, M., Arbel, R., & Ziv, Y. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2024.101167 · Cited by 16
Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Performance in Multiple Domains of Executive Functions in School–Aged Adolescents
Cabral, L. L. P., Browne, R. A. V., Freire, Y. A., Schwade, D., Souto, G. C., Dantas, M., de Lima, F. A. S., Farias-Junior, L. F., Costa, E. C., & Barros, J. F. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.640765 · Cited by 17
Exploring neural correlates of behavioral and academic resilience among children in poverty
Ellwood-Lowe, M., Irving, C., & Bunge, S. (2022) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101090 · Cited by 12
Motivational enhancement of cognitive control depends on depressive symptoms.
Ravizza, S. M., & Delgado, M. R. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0036754 · Cited by 16

Authors: Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
San Francisco State University (US)
George Mason University (US)
Corresponding author: Best, John R.
ORCID: Best, John R.
Naglieri, Jack A.
Venue: Learning and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-08
Volume: 21
Issue: 4
Pages: 327-336
ISSN: 1041-6080 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
PMC: PMC3155246
OpenAlex: W2062718236
Cited by: 1,294
References: 86
Citations by year: 2026: 79 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 109 · 2022: 147 · 2021: 132 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 32.37
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Learning and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK070922, R01DK060692)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: executive function, academic performance, cognitive development, age-related changes, cognitive assessment, mathematics achievement, reading achievement, domain-general cognition, children and adolescents

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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