Cited by 1,294Developmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and TestingEarly Childhood Education and Development

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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Best, John R., Miller, Patricia H., Naglieri, Jack A.·2011·Learning and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007PMC PMC3155246

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Abstract

This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.

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Duggan, E. C. (2014) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria) · Cited by 3
Incremental Validity of Character Measures Over the Big Five and Fluid intelligence in Predicting Academic AchievementPreprint
Zheng, A., Briley, D. A., Jacobucci, R., Harden, K. P., & Tucker–Drob, E. M. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/652qz · Cited by 3
The effects of kindergarten and first grade schooling on children’s executive function and academic skill development: Evidence from a school cutoff designPreprint
Kim, M. H., Ahmed, S. F., & Morrison, F. J. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/b753d · Cited by 2
Knowledge, attention, and psychomotor ability: A latent variable approach to understanding individual differences in simulated work performancePreprint
Mashburn, C. A., Burgoyne, A. P., Tsukahara, J. S., Pak, R., Coyne, J. T., Sibley, C. M., Foroughi, C. K., & Engle, R. W. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gdmtf · Cited by 3
Inhibitory Control Training Improves Cold but Not Warm CognitionPreprint
Nejati, V., Ghotbi, L., & Raskin, S. A. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3025999/v1 · Cited by 3
Executive functioning
Ahmed, S. F., Kelly, D. P., Waters, N. E., & Chaku, N. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-96023-6.00057-9 · Cited by 7
Executive Functioning and Early Math Skills in Young Children at Risk for Mathematical Difficulties: Evaluation of Interventions Efficacy and Transfer Effects
Ahmadi, A., Chuang, S. S., McClelland, M. M., Gonzales, C. R., & Beh‐Pajooh, A. (2023) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2023.2298166 · Cited by 5
“EF components (e.g., working memory, inhibitory control) as domain-general precursors are both cross-sectionally and long-itudinally correlated with math (Best et al., 2011; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Willoughby et al., 2019).”
Dysexecutive symptomatology in everyday functioning and academic achievement in adolescents
Pablo-Ríos, M. V., Asencio, E. N., Gordo, P. M., Gómez, R. G., Truque, C. M. P., & Moreno, L. M. G. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323317 · Cited by 4
A Virtual Reality Platform for Evaluating Deficits in Executive Functions in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children—Relation to Daily Function and to Quality of Life
Hamed-Daher, S., Josman, N., Klinger, É., & Engel‐Yeger, B. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11091123 · Cited by 3
“This emphasizes the necessity for further research into understanding the complex interaction between vestibular function and cognitive processes.”
Background
Back to school: Teachers’ initial perceptions of students’ executive function behaviors are important for teacher–student relationships and executive function development
Finch, J. E., Garcia, E. B., & Obradović, J. (2024) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2024.2418090 · Cited by 3
“We use accuracy data, as children during this age typically slow down to be more accurate on tasks, so quicker reaction times do not necessarily represent better EFs (Best et al., 2011; Harms et al., 2014).”
The PRSIST Intervention to Improve Self‐Regulation in Preschoolers: An Adaptation to the Italian Context
Ruffini, C., Magni, E., Pecini, C., & Howard, S. J. (2025) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.70032 · Cited by 2
The Correspondence Between Executive Functioning and Academic Achievement Among Children with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure
Cheung, K., Doyle, S., Clayton, K., Hanlon‐Dearman, A., Unger, J. A., Budhoo, C., & Romaniuk, A. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12070842 · Cited by 2
“Previous research has also suggested that although the content of reading versus math-related academic tasks is quite different, EF performance tasks measure common cognitive processes applicable across academic domains [23].”
Longitudinal changes between 24-h movement guidelines and academic performance in secondary school students: DADOS study
Monzonís‐Carda, I., Adelantado‐Renau, M., Beltran‐Valls, M. R., & Moliner‐Urdiales, D. (2025) · Sports Medicine and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.smhs.2025.07.006 · Cited by 2
Family Socioeconomic Status and Child Executive Functions: Exploring the Mediating Role of Child Routines
Wu, X., Lau, E. Y. H., & Zeng, X.-Y. (2025) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2025.2540655 · Cited by 2
“EFs are vital for enhancing young children’s adaptive skills and promoting better school readiness (Best et al., 2011; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014).”
Impact of impulsivity on the relationship of the brain structures with school performance
Yoon, Y. B., & Jung, W. H. (2025) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-025-00344-z · Cited by 2
“These processes are critical for academic success, as they in ﬂ uence students ’ ability to prioritize tasks, regulate emotions, and resist distractions 45,46 .”
Unlocking early academic skills: children’s cognitive processes, learning skills, and parental beliefs and behaviors predicting children’s language and math skills
Meesak, A.-M., Rozgonjuk, D., Õun, T., & Kikas, E. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1610243 · Cited by 7
“Most studies about children’s early learning have shown the importance of developing cognitive processes and academic skills (Best et al., 2011; Cameron et al., 2019; Fuhs et al., 2014; Morgan et al., 2019).”
Influential
Exploring the association between inhibitory control and mathematical performance in early childhood: A systematic review
Casanova, A., Rodríguez, C., Ferreira, R. A., & Miranda, I. (2025) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2025.2552198 · Cited by 3
Rational thinking in university students: Examining temporal stability and effects on academic performance and student satisfaction
Grimm, J., & Richter, T. (2025) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-025-01000-1 · Cited by 4
“Overall, these findings suggest that rational thinking develops similarly to other cognitive abilities, peaking in adolescence or early adulthood (Best et al., 2011; McAr-dle et al., 2002).”
Unity or Diversity in Executive Functions: Examining the Three‐Factor Model in Young Children
Veraksa, А., Charkhabi, M., Сергеевна, А. М., Dvorskaya, E. V., & Анатольевна, Я. В. (2025) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.70055 · Cited by 4
“Garon et al. 2008; Best et al. 2011).”
Giftedness and Academic Success: How Are Parent–Child and Teacher–Student Relations Related to Gifted Children’s Underachievement?
Baudry, C., Massé, L., Pearson, J., & Simard, M. (2025) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/01623532251406348 · Cited by 2
“The tendency for gifted students to demonstrate higher academic performance due to high cognitive abilities such as advanced problem-solving skills, rapid learning, and strong memory has been well documented in the literature (Bergold et al., 2020; Best et al., 2011; Roth et al., 2015).”
Additional language learning in ADHD: a call for research
Silawi, R., Degani, T., & Prior, A. (2025) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716425100337 · Cited by 2
“Working memory is associated with academic achievements such as reading comprehension and mathematics (Best et al., 2011; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006) and contributes to many learning processes (Engle, 2001) including first (Carretti et al., 2009; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006) and…”
Preschool‐Level Predictors of Children's Executive Function: Do Preschool‐Pedagogy Clusters Make a Difference?
Ezeugwu, C. R., Adedayo, M., Apochi, O., Oyekola, A. O., & Olaseni, J. T. (2026) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70155 · Cited by 3
From microbes to milestones: Gut bacterial abundances and functional pathways associate with neurodevelopment following preterm birth
Vaher, K., Kenny, A., Parga, P. L., Sánchez, L. J., Turner, H. L., Smikle, R., Corrigan, A. E., Cruickshank, H., Rudnicka, M., Fletcher‐Watson, S., et al. (2026) · Gut Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.gutmic.2026.100006 · Cited by 2
Effectiveness of neuroconstructivism teaching model to enhance students’ creative thinking, mathematics achievement, attention, and working memory
Srikoon, S., Khamput, C., Punsrigate, K., & Duangngern, P. (2026) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2026.103020 · Cited by 2
A systematic review on the development of self-regulated learning
Dignath, C., van Berk, B., & Vosniadou, S. (2026) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2026.102433 · Cited by 2
Effect of Play Therapy on Visual Memory in ADHD Children
Foroozandeh, E., & Mahdieh, M. (2014) · International journal of sport studies · Cited by 2
Individual Differences in Executive Function: The Role of Parental Monitoring as a Moderator
Sangawi, H. S., Adams, J. W., & Reissland, N. (2018) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054718797420 · Cited by 2
Estrato socioeconómico y funcionamiento ejecutivo: su relación con las competencias académicas en edad escolar
Azar, E. E., Filippetti, V. A., & Rubilar, J. A. V. (2019) · Cuadernos de neuropsicología · doi:10.7714/cnps/13.3.206 · Cited by 3
A influência da função executiva nas habilidades de consciência fonológica em escolares do 2º ano
Nóro, L. A., dos Santos, G. B., dos Santos, D. R., & Mota, H. B. (2020) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v9i3.2409 · Cited by 2
Development and Pathology of Executive Functions in Children with Visual Impairment: A Systematic Review Study
Choobdary, A., Alizadeh, H., Daramadi, P. S., & Asgari, M. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health · doi:10.29252/jcmh.7.1.25 · Cited by 2
Asthma diagnosis and learning disabilities among children in the United States
Rethemiotaki, I. (2021) · Family Medicine & Primary Care Review · doi:10.5114/fmpcr.2021.103157 · Cited by 2
Students’ Perceived Invested Effort in the Italian National Assessment of Mathematics
Doz, D., & Doz, E. (2021) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2021.14352a · Cited by 5
“Among them, there are students’ intelligence (Duckworth et al., 2011), domain-general cognitive abilities (Best et al., 2011), emotional factors (Calvin et al., 2010; Strand et al., 2006), students’ motivation (Cheng et al., 2014; Dodeen et al., 2014; Duckworth et al., 2011; Finn, 2015; Timmerman…”

Authors: Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A.
Affiliations: Washington University in St. Louis (US)
San Francisco State University (US)
George Mason University (US)
Corresponding author: Best, John R.
ORCID: Best, John R.
Naglieri, Jack A.
Venue: Learning and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2011-08
Volume: 21
Issue: 4
Pages: 327-336
ISSN: 1041-6080 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
PMC: PMC3155246
OpenAlex: W2062718236
Cited by: 1,294
References: 86
Citations by year: 2026: 79 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 88 · 2023: 109 · 2022: 147 · 2021: 132 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 40 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 32.37
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Learning and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK070922, R01DK060692)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
Keywords: executive function, academic performance, cognitive development, age-related changes, cognitive assessment, mathematics achievement, reading achievement, domain-general cognition, children and adolescents

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Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample.

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