Imaging the mental components of a planning task
Abstract
The Tower of London task (TOL) has been widely used to assess the ability to plan. We used H(2)O(15)-positron emission tomography to isolate some of the cognitive components of the task. Ten male volunteers were scanned twice in each of six conditions. In two conditions (plan) the subjects had to plan the best solution to TOL problems. In two other conditions (plan-control) the subjects were required to generate four moves without being constrained by a goal. In plan and plan-control tasks the subjects either planned the moves and then executed them (MOVE conditions) or imagined the necessary moves (IMAGINE conditions). The plan and plan-control tasks were matched for the working memory load and "initial thinking time". A visuomotor control task and rest served as baseline conditions. Performance on the plan tasks, in contrast to the baseline conditions, was associated with activation in the dorsal prefrontal cortex, premotor and parietal cortex, and cerebellum. Performance of the plan-control tasks was associated with activation of the same areas. Contrasting the plan with the plan-control tasks revealed no residual activation in the prefrontal cortex. These data show that the activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on the TOL can be accounted for by the components of generating, selecting and/or remembering mental moves. The task of relating the moves to the goal involves a comparison with a representation of the goal in posterior association areas. We did not find e…
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The frontal lobe contribution to the Tower of London task may be better characterised as mental imagery and goal conflict resolution rather than planning-specific functions.
“and the frontal lobe contribution to the task may be better characterised as mental imagery (Rowe et al., 2001) and goal conflict resolution (Morris et al., 1997) rather than planning-specific functions.”
From The case for the development and use of ecologically valid measures of executive function in experimental and clinical neuropsychology (2006) · cites this paper as Rowe et al., 2001
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“…to be associated with strategic working memory processes and regulatory control (Baker et al., 1996; Lazeron et al., 2000; Owen et al., 1996; Rowe et al., 2001; Yochim et al., 2008) known to underlie goal-oriented behaviors sensitive to stress (Baumeister et al., 1994; Kuhl and Koole, 2004)…”
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“…region has been associated with planning sequences of multiple movements ahead in time, or more specifically, with generating action sets, defined as superordinate (rather than single) stimulus–response and response–response rules (Rushworth et al., 2004; Rowe et al., 2001; Shima and Tanji, 2000 ).”
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“As suggested by neuroimagung studies ( Rowe, Owen, Johnstrude & Passingham, 2001, Unterrainer et al., 2004) performance on the ToL is mainly associated with dorsolateral-prefrontal activation, which seems to go along with decreased responsiveness of dorsal prefrontal-striatal circuits during planning in OCD patients (…”
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“…visible (in illustrations at liberal thresholds) that, however, do not pass the given significance threshold of that particular study [e.g., Boghi et al., 2006; Desco et al., 2011; Lazeron et al., 2000; Liemburg r 409 r et al., 2015; Rowe et al., 2001; Schall et al., 2003; Wagner et al., 2006].”
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“The basal ganglia, a region that is highly interconnected with the prefrontal cortex, as been implicated in executive processing (Melrose et al., 2007) and has been found to be involved previously in the TOL (Beauchamp et al., 2003; Dagher et al., 1999; Rowe et al., 2001; van den Heuvel et al., 2003).”
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Propuesta de un protocolo para la evaluación de las funciones ejecutivas
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“…measured by the RVP adds support to abundant evidence from functional neuroimaging studies suggesting that inhibitory control and error detection are associated with such brain regions as the OFC (Elliott & Deakin, 2005; Rubia et al. 2010) and basal ganglia (Jahfari et al. 2011 ; Liu et al. 2011).”
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“Some of these regions are commonly activated by both working memory and planning tasks (Baker et al. 1996a,b; D’Esposito et al. 2000; Postle et al. 1999; Rowe and Passingham 2001; Rowe et al. 2001) and therefore TPD could conceivably alter performance of these tasks, either by directly modulating DA transmission withi…”
MethodWhen planning fails: individual differences and error-related brain activity in problem solving.
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“…such as problem solving (Nichelli et al., 1994; Prabhakaran et al., 1997, 2001; Christoff et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2003; Atherton et al., 2003) or planning (Dagher et al., 1999; Lazeron et al., 2000; Rowe et al., 2001; Cazalis et al., 2003; Schall et al., 2003; van den Heuvel et al., 2003).”
BackgroundAn fMRI study in monozygotic twins discordant for obsessive–compulsive symptoms
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“For example, involvement of premotor regions might reflect differences in internal imagery of movement of the beads during planning (Rowe et al., 2001).”
The Tower of London: the impact of instructions, cueing, and learning on planning abilities.
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“In fact, a similar process is thought to be involved in the solution of a visuospatial problem solving task, the Tower of London (Owen, 2005) with neuroimaging studies of the task showing the involvement of these same brain regions (Dagher et al., 2001; Rowe et al., 2001; Newman et al., 2003).”
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“Since these areas are involved in basic functions of motion processing (Rowe et al., 2001), motor prep-”
BackgroundWorking Memory and New Learning Following Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury
Mandalis, A., Kinsella, G., Ong, B., & Anderson, V. (2007) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565640701376045 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“The Tower of London (TOL: Shallice, 1982 ) test was used to assess planning and recruits working memory resources as participants are required to keep track of a long term goal whilst achieving subgoals ( Levin et al, 1996 ; Rowe, Owen, Johnstrude, & Passingham, 2001 ).”
MethodCadle, C. E., & Zoladz, P. R. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00910 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…2004; Squire et al., 2004; Broadbent et al., 2006), and the PFC, which is responsible for working memory and higher-order cognitive function (Rowe et al., 2001; Bechara, 2005; Nebel et al., 2005; Muller and Knight, 2006), have a high density of corticosteroid receptors (McEwen et al., 1968,…”
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“…polymorphism affects planning ability for non-emotional problem solving [a dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)-based task (Owen et al., 1990; Rowe et al., 2001; Newman et al., 2003)], it did not affect planning ability in the IGT which involves planning based on emotional processing of…”
BackgroundExecutive functions and prefrontal cortex: a matter of persistence?
Ball, G., Stokes, P. R., Rhodes, R. A., Bose, S. K., Rezek, I., Wink, A.-M., Lord, L.-D., Mehta, M. A., Grasby, P. M., & Turkheimer, F. E. (2011) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2011.00003 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience www.frontiersin.org January 2011 | Volume 5 | Article 3 | 8 have attempted to delineate structures underlying the cognitive subprocesses involved (Lazeron et al., 2000; Rowe et al., 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Schall et al., 2003).”
Neurocognitive predictors of social cognition in remitted schizophrenia
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Cognition in Parkinson's Disease
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fMRI study of problem-solving after severe traumatic brain injury
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“…function using tasks that require the acquisition and performance of cognitive action sequences (e.g., the Tower of London task) have demonstrated activation in frontostriatal circuits including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and caudate (Dagher et al., 1999; Rowe et al., 2001).”
MethodTwo networks involved in producing and realizing plans.
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“…regions, including the dorsolateral prefrontal, anterior cingulate, premotor, posterior parietal, precuneal, striatal, cerebellar, and occipital cortices, show greater activation during TOL task performance relative to baseline conditions (Baker et al. 1996; Rowe et al. 2001; Schall et al. 2003).”
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Impaired executive functions in paediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder patients
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Neural Basis for Economic Saving Strategies in Human Amygdala-Prefrontal Reward Circuits
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The Neuroscience of Freedom and Creativity
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“The DLPFC is related with cognitive control such as planning for the future and achieving a certain goal (Rowe et al., 2001).”
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“Based on its similarity to the Tower of London (TOL) this task is assumed to reflect the integrity of the dorsal prefrontal cortex [8,89], although further research is needed to determine its utility in clinical trials for DS [75].”
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“These regions are consistently implicated in a variety of executive reasoning tasks, including the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (23–27) and the Tower of London test (28, 29), and in both deductive and inductive reasoning tasks (30–33).”
BackgroundSleep Enhances Consolidation of Memory Traces for Complex Problem-Solving Skills
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Cognitive Neuroscience of Thinking
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Gaze behaviour: A window into distinct cognitive processes revealed by the Tower of London test.
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Self-citationEstructura factorial de la Función ejecutiva desde el dominio conductual
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Impaired rapid modulation of cerebral hemodynamics during a planning task in schizophrenia.
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“Available neuroimaging literature on TOL suggests an involvement of the prefrontal, parietal and temporal cortex, including also the cingulate cortex and subcortical areas (Dagher et al., 1999; Rowe et al., 2001).”
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Do we understand the prefrontal cortex?
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Contribución del cerebelo a los procesos cognitivos: avances actuales
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“Investigaciones con diferentes grupos de pacientes y utilizando técnicas de neuroimagen han demostrado el papel fundamental de la corteza prefrontal y los ganglios de la base en la solución de problemas y en la planificación [97,98].”
BackgroundKnowledge-Based Inferences Are Not General
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Functional MR study of a motor task and the Tower of London task at 1.0 T
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In search of optimal psychoactivation: stimulants as cognitive performance enhancers
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- Authors
- Rowe, J. B., Owen, A. M., Johnsrude, I. S., & Passingham, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Rowe, J.B.
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2001-01
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 315-327
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2154935260
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 5.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (077029)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- Tower of London task, planning, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, mental imagery, goal-directed behavior, visuomotor control, cerebellum, premotor cortex, parietal cortex, path evaluation
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Humans, Male, Memory, Mental Processes, Problem Solving, Tomography, Emission-Computed, Prefrontal Cortex
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