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Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory-based cognitive–behavioral measurement instrument

Caplan, Scott E·2002·Computers in Human Behavior

DOI 10.1016/s0747-5632(02)00004-3

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Validation d’une version courte en langue française pour adolescents de la Compulsive Internet Use Scale
Cartierre, N., Coulon, N., & Demerval, R. (2011) · Neuropsychiatrie de l Enfance et de l Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.neurenf.2011.06.003 · Cited by 18
“La controverse concernant la pertinence, la légitimité t la validité des concepts de dépendance ou d’addiction, dans e cas d’un usage problématique d’Internet, a conduit certains hercheurs à utiliser des expressions telles que consommation athologique ou excessive ou encore abusive [4,13].”
Background
Sharing Brings Happiness?: Effects of Sharing in Social Media Among Adult Users
Teo, W. J. S., & Lee, C. S. (2016) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-49304-6_39 · Cited by 18
Youth 2.0: Social Media and Adolescence
Walrave, M., Ponnet, K. S., Vanderhoven, E., Haers, J., & Segaert, B. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-27893-3 · Cited by 23
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Jeong, J.-H., & Bae, S. (2024) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2022.0288 · Cited by 23
“19 Davis 18 divided the factors affecting addiction into distal contributory and proximal contributory causes.”
Background
Caught in the Web of the Net? Part I: Meta-analyses of Problematic Internet Use and Social Media Use in (Young) People with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Muris, P., Otgaar, H., Donkers, F. C. L., Ollendick, T. H., & Deckers, A. (2025) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-025-00524-8 · Cited by 20
“…the internet certainly has ‘addictive’ features, various scholars have questioned whether the phenomenon should be considered as a true addiction (Caplan, 2002; Weinstein & Lejoyeux, 2010; Yellowlees & Marks, 2007) and therefore prefer the term problematic internet use (PIU), which can be…”
Facebook Use in University Students: Exposure and Reinforcement Search
García‐Domingo, M., Aranda, M., & Fuentes, V. M. (2017) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2017.02.071 · Cited by 17
Parental supervision and control of adolescents’ problematic internet use: understanding and predicting adoption of parental control software
Stewart, K., Brodowsky, G. H., & Sciglimpaglia, D. (2021) · Young Consumers Insight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers · doi:10.1108/yc-04-2021-1307 · Cited by 21
Exploring the Influence of Information Overload, Internet Addiction, and Social Network Addiction, on Students’ Well-Being and Academic Outcomes
AlHeneidi, H. H., & Smith, A. P. (2021) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91408-0_8 · Cited by 21
“Scientists have used different terms to measure internet addiction; "Pathological Internet Use" [29-31], "Problematic Internet Use" [32,33], "Maladaptive Internet Use" [33, 34], Internet Behavior Dependence" [35], "Internet Dependence" [36, 37], "Internet Over-use" [38], "Misuse of the Internet" [39], and "Internet-re…”
Background
The Influence of Stressful Life Events on Adolescents’ Problematic Internet Use: the Mediating Effect of Self-worth and the Moderating Effect of Physical Activity
Zheng, X., Chen, J., Li, C., Shuping, S., Yu, Q., Xiong, Q., Zhu, F., Zhang, J., & Hu, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-022-00758-5 · Cited by 18
“This phenomenon is known as “problematic Internet use (PIU)” (Caplan, 2002), referring to “use of the Internet that creates psychological, social, school and/or work difficulties in a person’s life” (Beard & Wolf, 2001); it is also known as “Internet addiction” (Young, 1998), “pathological internet use” (Davis, 2001),…”
Background
Is there a gradient in the association between internet addiction and health?
Hossin, M. Z., Islam, A., Billah, M., Haque, M., & Uddin, J. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264716 · Cited by 17
“IA, often interchangeably used as problematic or compulsive or pathological internet use, denotes a form of unrestricted internet use and potentially leads to adverse social, psychological, and behavioral consequences [2, 4, 5].”
Background
Social Media as It Interfaces with Psychosocial Development and Mental Illness in Transitional-Age Youth
Primack, B. A., Perryman, K. L., Crofford, R. A., & Escobar-Viera, C. G. (2021) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2021.07.007 · Cited by 19
“28,97,103 For example, passive consumption of SM content, as opposed to active communication, has been associated with decrease in bonding and bridging social capital and increase in loneliness.”
Background
Social media, sleep difficulties and depressive symptoms: A case study of South African youth in Cape Town
Doncker, K. D., & McLean, N. (2022) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102038 · Cited by 17
Tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression mediate the relationship between problematic internet use and procrastination
Chashmi, S. J. E., Hasani, J., Kuss, D. J., Griffiths, M. D., & Shahrajabian, F. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03745-0 · Cited by 22
Helpful-stressful cycle? Psychological links between type of mobile phone user and stress
Lee, Y., Chang, C., Cheng, Z., & Lin, Y. (2015) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2015.1055800 · Cited by 22
“…decrease the risk of negative evaluations by others and increase the ease of building an attachment with others with whom they interact on the network (Campbell, Cumming, and Hughes 2006; Caplan 2002; Lee and Stapinski 2012; McKenna and Bargh 2000; Selfhout et al. 2009; Yen et al. 2012).”
Background
Lise öğrencilerinde internet bağımlılığının DEHB ve tütün/alkol kullanma ile ilişkisi
Metin, Ö., Saraçlı, Ö., Atasoy, N., Şenormancı, Ö., KARDEŞ, V. Ç., Açıkgöz, H. O., Demi̇rci̇, E., AYAN, Ü. B., Atik, L., & Tahiroğlu, A. Y. (2015) · Dusunen Adam The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.5350/dajpn2015280303 · Cited by 17
“A number of terms are used to describe negative effects of internet use, such as problematic internet use (2), compulsive internet use (3), pathologic internet use (4), internet-related problems (5), and IA (1).”
Background
A Qualitative Exploration of Facebook Addiction: Working toward Construct Validity
Ryan, T., Chester, A., Reece, J., & Xenos, S. (2016) · Addicta The Turkish Journal on Addictions · doi:10.15805/addicta.2016.3.0004 · Cited by 18
“Shy or socially anxious people also prefer communicating online, as the slow and asynchronous nature of text-based communication allows them to take their time to think about responses (Baker & Oswald, 2010; Caplan, 2002).”
Background
Effects of Media Attributions on Responsibility Judgments and Policy Opinions
Jeong, S., Yum, J.-Y., & Hwang, Y. (2017) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2017.1362002 · Cited by 20
“From an individualistic perspective, smartphone addiction can be explained based on a cognitive-behavioral model (e.g., Caplan, 2002, 2010; Davis, 2001), which proposes that problematic media behaviors are due to psychological factors, such as lack of self-control and self-regulation.”
Background
Compulsive Smartphone Use: The Roles of Flow, Reinforcement Motives, and Convenience
Zhang, K. Z. K., Chen, C., Zhao, S. J., & Lee, M. (2014) · Cited by 17
Impact of intangibility on perceived risk associated with online games
Chen, L. S.-L., Lee, Y., & Wang, S.-T. (2011) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2011.624640 · Cited by 17
“Risks identiﬁed with online game use are psychological dependency (Caplan 2002), physical problems such as fatigue due to prolonged exposure, reduction in oﬄine contact with people (Liu and Peng 2009), preference for a virtual life with other online gamers rather than face-to-face communication…”
Background
Cognitions About Problematic Internet Use: the Importance of Negative Cognitive Stress Appraisals and Maladaptive Coping Strategies
Şenol-Durak, E., & Durak, M. (2016) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-016-9424-4 · Cited by 17
Relationship between Early Maladaptive Schema and Internet Addiction:A Cross-Sectional Study
Shajari, F., Sohrābi, F., & Jomehri, F. (2016) · Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Health Care · doi:10.18311/ajprhc/2016/4334 · Cited by 17
Social anxiety moderates the links between excessive chatting and compulsive Internet use
Zalk, N. V. (2016) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2016-3-3 · Cited by 17
“As such, the term is similar to concepts such as Internet dependence (Wang, 2001), pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001), problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000), and compulsive Internet use (Meerkerk, Van Den Eijnden, Vermulst, & Garretsen, 2009).”
Background
Self-Regulation in Instant Messaging (IM): Failures, Strategies, and Negative Consequences
Quan-Haase, A. (2010) · International Journal of e-Collaboration · doi:10.4018/jec.2010070102 · Cited by 16
Technostress of HR professionals: the darker implication of remote work transformations
Nayak, S., Budhwar, P., & Malik, A. (2025) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2024.2446508 · Cited by 16
“While previous research has reported that remote working is associated with problematic internet use behaviour (Caplan, 2002) and loneliness (Taser et al., 2022), the impact of remote working on technostress and their consequences due to excess usage of ICT technologies remains unclear, especially…”
Problematic internet use: the preference for online social interaction and the motives for using the Internet as a mediating factor
López, M. C. L. D. A., Catalina-García, B., & Ruiz, Y. P. (2022) · Communication & Society · doi:10.15581/003.35.2.1-17 · Cited by 24
Excessive use of personal social media at work: antecedents and outcomes from dual-system and person-environment fit perspectives
Yu, L., Chen, Y., Zhang, S., Bao, D., & Liao, S. (2022) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-05-2021-0287 · Cited by 18
Investigation of Problematic Internet Usage of University Students with Psychosocial Levels at Different Levels
Eroğlu, M., Pamuk, M., & Pamuk, K. (2013) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.372 · Cited by 17
“PIU is a multidimensional syndrome consisting of cognitive and behavioural symptoms that result in negative social, academic, or professional consequences (Caplan 2002, 2003; Davis, 2001; Davis, Flett, & Besser 2002; Morahan, Martin & Schumacher, 2003, cited in Caplan, 2005).”
BackgroundResult
Relationship between dimensions of grandiose narcissism and Facebook addiction among university students
Balcerowska, J., Biernatowska, A., Golińska, P., & Barańska, J. (2019) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2019.92957 · Cited by 16
“320 current issues in personality psychology being which is also correlated with lower susceptibility to addictions (Caplan, 2002).”
Background
Problematic use of social media: The influence of social environmental forces and the mediating role of copresence
Zhang, J., Bai, H., Lu, J., & Zheng, L. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e12959 · Cited by 21
“Because it is broad enough to cover varying levels of compulsivity and negative outcomes experienced by individuals [65,66].”
Background
Problematic Internet Use: Clinical Aspects
Liu, T., & Potenza, M. N. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511711930.016 · Cited by 16
Preventive Role of Parents in Adolescent Problematic Internet Game Use in Korea
Kim, D. H., Jeong, E. J., & Zhong, H. (2010) · Korean Journal of Sociology · Cited by 16
An Investigation of Problematic Internet Usage Behaviors on Turkish University Students
Ceyhan, E., & Ceyhan, A. A. (2007) · Cited by 16
The influence of information overload and problematic Internet use on adults wellbeing
AlHeneidi, H. H. (2019) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) · Cited by 16
The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2 in a French sample: Psychometric evaluation of the theoretical model
Laconi, S., Kaliszewska-Czeremska, K., Tricard, N., Chabrol, H., & Kuss, D. J. (2017) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2017.09.001 · Cited by 15
“The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) [21] was one of the first scales developed in order to measure cognitive and behavioral symptoms associated with PIU from a multidimensional perspective [22].”
Is Extreme in the Eye of the Beholder? An Experimental Assessment of Extremist Cognitions
Shortland, N. D., Nader, E. S., THOMPSON, L. A., & Palasinski, M. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520958645 · Cited by 15
“In other words, in light of our results suggesting the importance of personality, we propose the need for examining how such new tailored contents tap into the cognitive and emotional needs of those who score high on the measures of loneliness, low self-esteem, and depression, the key factors associated with problemat…”
Background
Exploring the Mechanism of Pathological Gaming in Adolescents: Focused on the Mediation Paths and Latent Group Comparison
Jeon, H. G., Jeong, E. J., Lee, S. J., & Kim, J. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.756328 · Cited by 17
“The cognitive behavioral theory confirms that negative affects evoke distorted cognitive processes, which interfere with individuals’ judgments about problematic behaviors (Caplan, 2002).”
Background
Profiles of problematic social networking site use: A cross-cultural validation of a scale with Spanish and Mexican adolescents
Machimbarrena, J. M., Varona, M. N., Muela, A., & González‐Cabrera, J. M. (2023) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2023-3-5 · Cited by 19
“Regarding the latter, Davis (2001) and Caplan (2002) were the first to conceptualize PIU as model of its own.”
Background
Humane and Dignified? : Migrants' Experiences of Living in a 'State of Deportability' in Sweden
DeBono, D., Rönnqvist, S., & Magnusson, K. (2015) · OAR@UM (University of Malta) · Cited by 15
Neural Correlates of Non-clinical Internet Use in the Motivation Network and Its Modulation by Subclinical Autistic Traits
Fujiwara, H., Yoshimura, S., Kobayashi, K., Ueno, T., Oishi, N., & Murai, T. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00493 · Cited by 15
“Caplan (2002) found that MR was a significant cognitive predictor of negative outcomes associated with IU.”
BackgroundMethod
Internet Addiction, Problematic Smartphone Use and Psychological Health of Nigerian University Undergraduates
Akpunne, B. C., & Akinnawo, E. O. (2019) · International Neuropsychiatric Disease Journal · doi:10.9734/indj/2018/v12i330093 · Cited by 20
“Also depressed individuals are found to more likely to engage in problematic smartphone and internet use [69,68].”
Background
Social relational factors of excessive internet use in four European countries
Mikuška, J., Šmahel, D., Dědková, L., Staksrud, E., Mascheroni, G., & Milošević, T. (2020) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s00038-020-01484-2 · Cited by 16
Internet addiction in adolescents: Development and validation of Internet Addiction Diagnostic Questionnaire (KDAI)
Siste, K., Wiguna, T., Bardasono, S., Sekartini, R., Pandelaki, J., Sarasvita, R., Suwartono, C., Murtani, B. J., Damayanti, R., Christian, H., et al. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113829 · Cited by 18
Internet Behavior Preferences Predict Pathological Internet Use: A Latent Profile Analysis
Chen, J., Liu, J., Zhao, G., & Kong, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.644623 · Cited by 15
“Pathological Internet use, also known as Internet addiction, is a typical excessive Internet use (Caplan, 2002; Meerkerk et al., 2009; Young and Abreu, 2011), including addiction and less severe conditions in which some problems emerge but are still not to the level of full-blown addiction (Lei and Yang, 2007).”
Background
Coping and Mindfulness
Ataşalar, J., & Michou, A. (2017) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000230 · Cited by 15
Fluid self-worth: The compensatory role of online social interaction
Li, D., Guo, Y., Zhang, L., Tu, M., Yu, Q., Li, H., Sun, X., & Jin, S. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105536 · Cited by 15
A comprehensive measure assessing different types of problematic use of the internet among Chinese adolescents: The Assessment of Criteria for Specific Internet-use Disorders (ACSID-11)
Saffari, M., Chen, C., Chen, I., Ruckwongpatr, K., Griffiths, M. D., Potenza, M. N., Wang, X. L., Huang, Y., Chen, J., Tsai, C.-C., et al. (2024) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2024.152517 · Cited by 14
The Relationship Between Family Communication and Adolescent Problematic Internet Use: The Chain Mediation Effects of Loneliness and Depression
Zhang, D., You, Y., Cai, L., Zhang, W., Zhang, K., & Wu, Y. (2024) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s486192 · Cited by 19
“24,46 As a low-risk and easier way to connect with others, 47 online communication satisfies the needs of depressive individuals, who are characterized by reduced activity levels, rumination, negative self-concept, social withdrawal, and a bad mood, 48,49 which can further lead to PIU.”
Mediating Role of Social Anxiety in the Relationship Between Phubbing and Social Media Addiction Among Higher Education Students
Oral, M., & Karakurt, N. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2445098 · Cited by 15
The effect of physical activities on internet addiction in college students: the mediating effect of self-control
Sun, Y., Wang, Y., Yu, H., Liu, J., & Feng, X. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1530740 · Cited by 17
“The scale found that the lack of self-regulation was an important factor in the negative consequences of individual Internet use (Caplan, 2002).”
Developing a scale for the perceived social benefits of sharing
Powell, A. E., Camilleri, A. R., Dobele, A. R., & Stavros, C. (2017) · Journal of Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1108/jcm-03-2017-2124 · Cited by 14
Profiling of pornography addiction among children using EEG signals: A systematic literature review
Kang, X., Handayani, D. O. D., Chong, P. P., & Acharya, U. R. (2020) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2020.103970 · Cited by 14
How objectively measured Twitter and Instagram use relate to self‐reported personality and tendencies toward Internet/Smartphone Use Disorder
Peterka‐Bonetta, J., Sindermann, C., Elhai, J. D., & Montag, C. (2021) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.243 · Cited by 17
Psychometric Properties of a German Version of the Young Diagnostic Questionnaire (YDQ) in two Independent Samples of Adolescents
Wartberg, L., Durkee, T., Kriston, L., Parzer, P., Fischer-Waldschmidt, G., Resch, F., Sarchiapone, M., Wasserman, C., Hoven, C. W., Carli, V., et al. (2016) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-016-9654-6 · Cited by 14
“This might be an advantage in epidemiological studies, but if a differentiated measurement of pathological Internet use is needed, then a multidimensional instrument (e.g. Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale, Caplan 2002) might be more appropriate.”
Background
Internet Use and Psychological Wellbeing: A Study of International Students in Singapore
Dutta, O., & Chye, S. (2018) · Journal of International Students · doi:10.32674/jis.v7i3.303 · Cited by 14
“achieved level of social contact (Peplau & Perlman, 1979) is closely related to problematic internet use, which can translate into negative consequences in various domains of life (Caplan, 2002; Douglas et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
INTEGRATING PSYCHOSOCIAL AND COGNITIVE PREDICTORS OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SERVICE ADDICTION TENDENCY USING STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING
Mikyong, S. H. I. N., Lee, J., Chyung, Y. J., Kim, P. W., & Jung, S. Y. (2016) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2016.182 · Cited by 14
Intensive and excessive Internet use: Different predictors operating among adolescents
Popadić, D., Pavlović, Z., & Kuzmanović, D. (2020) · Psihologija · doi:10.2298/psi190805003p · Cited by 14
“Other concepts have been proposed to cover the sum of various degrees of impairments whose number, intensity, or duration did not need to exceed the threshold to be considered an addiction and, hence, pathology, such as problematic internet use (Caplan, 2002; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Shapira et al., 2000), p…”
Background
Prediction of Problematic Internet Usage of University Students by Their Attachment Styles
Aktürk, A. O. (2020) · International Journal of Education in Mathematics Science and Technology · doi:10.46328/ijemst.v8i4.1170 · Cited by 15
“Individuals who experience problems in establishing close relationships in real life may use the Internet uncontrollably due to their need for socialization or belonging to a group (Caplan, 2002; Lin & Tsai, 2002).”
Background
Cognitive attainment in online learning environments: matching cognitive and technological presence
Gregori, E., Virgili, M. E. T., & Guasch, T. (2011) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2010.531026 · Cited by 14
“Written fragments allow for the analysis of cognitive presence (Caplan, 2002 ; Chung, de Vries, Cheak, Stevens, & Bewley, 2002 ; Rourke & Kanuka, 2007 ).”
Background
Computer-mediated communication in adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI)
Durkin, K., Conti‐Ramsden, G., & Walker, A. J. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.10.007 · Cited by 14
“The relationship between time spent online and psychological well-being has been a controversial topic, leading to much debate regarding potential correlates and effects (Barak & Suler, 2008; Caplan, 2002; Kraut et al., 2002).”
Background
Internet Addiction among Senior Medical Students in King Abdulaziz University, Prevalence and Association with Depression
Bakarman, M. A. (2017) · Global Journal of Health Science · doi:10.5539/gjhs.v9n10p60 · Cited by 14
“(Beard, 2001; Young, 1998; Caplan, 2002).”
Psychotherapy for Internet Addiction
de Abreu, C. N., & Góes, D. S. (2007) · doi:10.1002/9781118013991.ch9 · Cited by 14
Problematic Internet Use and Psychosocial Well-being: Role of Mindfulness Mediated by Self-Control and Negative Affect
Sinha, N. K., Kumar, P., Kumar, S., & Priyadarshi, P. (2021) · IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review · doi:10.1177/2277975220965346 · Cited by 13
“…research provides evidence that various social and psychological mechanisms such as dysfunctional coping, less supportive social context, unmet psychological needs, lack of awareness and poor self-regulation (Ataşalar & Michou, 2019; Caplan, 2002) may contribute towards the development of PIU.”
Background
Nomophobia and smartphone addiction: do the variables age and sex explain this relationship?
Guimarães, C. L. C., de Oliveira, L. B. S., Pereira, R. S., da Silva, P. G. N., & Gouveia, V. V. (2022) · Psico-USF · doi:10.1590/1413-82712022270209 · Cited by 25
Stigmatizing attitudes toward Internet gaming disorder, Problematic smartphone use and Problematic social networking site use: An experimental vignette study
Casale, S., Boursier, V., Musicò, A., Ghinassi, S., Cigolini, G., Petrucci, E., & Gioia, F. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107665 · Cited by 18
“Moreover, it has been suggested that technological addictions should not be defined as such when the technology use is a mere medium to access the addictive object (Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001).”
The S-O-R paradigm in explaining enterprise social network (ESN) discontinuous usage intention
Olfat, M. (2023) · Aslib Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1108/ajim-07-2023-0268 · Cited by 13
Are self-regulation and depressive symptoms predictors of problematic Internet use among first year university students?
Šebeňa, R., Orosová, O., & Benka, J. (2013) · Psychnology · Cited by 13
Unravelling the Web
Widyanto, L., & Griffiths, M. D. (2010) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-926-7.ch003 · Cited by 13
Problematic Attachment to Social Media: Lived Experience and Emotions
Altuwairiqi, M., Κωστούλας, Θ., Powell, G., & Ali, R. (2019) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16184-2_76 · Cited by 14
Association Between Psychological Well-Being and Problematic Internet Use Among University Students of Bangladesh
Akhter, M. S., & Khalek, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-020-00142-x · Cited by 15
Internet Gaming, Emotional Intelligence, Psychological Distress, and Academic Performance Among University Students
Zahra, S., Ahsan, S., Kiani, S., Shahbaz, K., & Andleeb, S. N. (2020) · Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.33824/pjpr.2020.35.2.14 · Cited by 21
“Internet gaming has been related to psychological distress, mood, and anxiety disorders (Caplan, 2002; Ceyhan & Ceyhan, 2008; Chak & Leung, 2004; Ebeling-Witte et al., 2007; Shaw & Black, 2008; Yeh et al., 2008; Yuen & Lavin, 2004).”
Background
Influential Factors of Player's Loyalty toward Online Games for Achieving Commercial Success
Lee, C.-W. (2010) · Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ) · doi:10.1016/j.ausmj.2010.02.003 · Cited by 14
“NetValue (2002) estimates that 40% Internet users have played online games in Taiwan.”
Background
Çocuk ve Ergenlerde İnternet Kullanımı
Cömert, I. T., & Kayıran, S. M. (2010) · Çocuk Dergisi / Journal of Child · doi:10.5222/j.child.2010.166 · Cited by 13
Old Desires, New Media
Tamir, D., & Ward, A. F. (2015) · Cited by 13
A Study on the Effects of Loneliness, Depression and Perceived Social Support on Problematic Internet Use among University Students
Özşaker, M., Muslu, G. K., Kahraman, A., Beytut, D., Yardımcı, F., & Başbakkal, Z. (2015) · The Anthropologist · doi:10.1080/09720073.2015.11891688 · Cited by 14
Internet addiction, academic performance and personality traits: a correlational study among female university students
Kakaraki, S., Tselios, N. K., & Katsanos, C. (2017) · International Journal of Learning Technology · doi:10.1504/ijlt.2017.086382 · Cited by 13
“Davis, 2001), “Problematic Internet Use” (Caplan, 2002; Davis, Flett, & Besser, 2002), “Compulsive Internet Use” (Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006), “Cyberspace Addiction” (Suler, 2004), “Internet Dependence” (Young 1996), “Internet Overuse” (Whang, Lee, & Chang, 2003), “Misuse of Internet” (Greenfield & Davis, 2002), and “…”
Predicting Cyber-Production deviance in the workplace
Mahatanankoon, P. (2006) · International Journal of Internet and Enterprise Management · doi:10.1504/ijiem.2006.011043 · Cited by 13
“Pathological Internet Usage (PIU) involves excessive internet usage from people who use the internet as a means of escaping from their emotional and physical drawbacks (Caplan, 2002; David, 2001; Morahan-Martin and Schumacher, 2000).”
Background
Factor Structure of the Internet Addiction Scale and Its Associations with Psychiatric Symptoms for Korean Adolescents
Sung, M., Shin, Y.-M., & Cho, S.-M. (2013) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-013-9689-0 · Cited by 13
“The instruments of measuring the degree to which people use internet have been studied by a number of researchers (Young 1998b; Lin and Tsai 2002; MorahanMartin and Schumacher 2000; Caplan 2002; Bernner 1997; Davis et al. 2002).”
Background
Evaluating Use and Attitudes Towards Social Media and ICT for Portuguese youth: the MTUAS-PY scale
da Costa, J. J. M., Matos, A. P., Rosario, M. D. P., Salvador, M. D. C., Vale-Dias, M. D. L., & Zenha-Rela, M. A. (2016) · The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences · doi:10.15405/epsbs.2016.07.02.9 · Cited by 12
“Also recently available is the Portuguese version of the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 - GPIUS2 (Assunção & Matos, 2016) relying in the concept of problematic Internet use (PIU), as it is presented in Caplan investigation (Caplan, 2002, 2005, 2010).”
Background
AI adoption among adolescents in education: extending the UTAUT2 with psychological and contextual factors
Caffaratti, L. B., Longobardi, C., Badenes‐Ribera, L., & Marengo, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1614993 · Cited by 22
“…considered dimensions such as technology-related anxiety (Li et al., 2024; Chai et al., 2020), the integration of PIU (Young, 1998; Davis, 2001; Caplan, 2002) and ATAI (Sindermann et al., 2021) into the UTAUT2 in the context of AI adoption among adolescents is still poorly explored (Huang et…”
Appetitive Needs and Addiction
Sussman, S. Y., & Pakdaman, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.004 · Cited by 12
Cognitive inflexibility and repetitive habitual actions are associated with problematic use of the internet
Raj, K., Segrave, R. A., Verdejo‐García, A., & Yücel, M. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107600 · Cited by 10
The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 in a Polish sample: psychometric validation and relationship with specific Internet-related disorders and psychosocial functioning
Balcerowska, J. M., & Bereznowski, P. (2022) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp/151869 · Cited by 14
“The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 is an updated version of the 29-item Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS), previously based on Davis’ cognitive-behavioral model (Caplan, 2002).”
BackgroundMethod
The mediating role of cognitive distortions in the relationship between problematic social media use and self-esteem in youth
Şireli, Ö., Dayı, A., & Çolak, M. (2023) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-023-01155-z · Cited by 12
“In recent years, many theorists have been explaining problematic internet use or social media use with a cognitive behavioral approach (Davis 2001; Caplan 2002).”
Background
Effects of Cognitive-Behavioral Group Therapy on Reducing Levels of Internet Addiction, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among Nursing Students in Morocco
Ksiksou, J., Maskour, L., & Alaoui, S. (2023) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.5812/ijpbs-136425 · Cited by 15
“Therefore, a CBGT program can correct these types of cognitive distortions (32).”
Background
The role of cognitive flexibility and psychological well-being in the effect of mindfulness on problematic internet use
ÇELEBİ, G. Y., Güngör, S., & Kaya, F. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-16858-w · Cited by 12
“The concept of internet addiction was also used instead of problematic internet use in the literature 4,12 .”
Internet Dependence in Chinese High School Students: Relationship with Sex, Self-Esteem, and Social Support
Zhang, R. (2015) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/18.21.pr0.117c11z0 · Cited by 12
“However, much of the literature has paid less attention to why people were online and has been more concerned with content-specifi c problematic Internet users (e.g., online gambling) or the amount of time they spend online ( Caplan, 2002 ).”
Background
Watching the world from my screen: A longitudinal evaluation of the influence of a problematic use of the internet on depressive symptomatology
Hernández, C., Cottin, M., Parada, F., Labbé, N., Núñez, C., Quevedo, Y., Davanzo, A., & Behn, A. J. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106995 · Cited by 13
Time flies when chatting online: a social structure and social learning model to understand excessive use of mobile instant messaging
Wang, C., Zhang, J., & Lee, M. (2021) · Information Technology and People · doi:10.1108/itp-09-2020-0624 · Cited by 12
Problematic Video Game Use Scale
Topor, D. R., Swenson, L. P., Liguori, G. M., Spirito, A., Lowenhaupt, E. A., & Hunt, J. (2011) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.11m07040 · Cited by 12
“These studies may also consider how these findings may relate to use of other technologies such as the Internet 26,27 and mobile devices.”
Understanding Problematic Smartphone Use and Its Characteristics: A Perspective on Behavioral Addiction
Wang, C., Lee, M., Yang, C., & Li, X. (2016) · Lecture notes in information systems and organisation · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30133-4_15 · Cited by 13
“Previous studies have shown that people who have certain personality and social-psychological characteristics are more likely to develop problematic use of technologies [4, 6, 7, 8, 44].”
Ergenlerin Problemli İnternet Kullanımının Yordanması
Demır, İ., Özköklü, D. P., & Turğut, B. (2015) · Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.17860/efd.02132 · Cited by 12
“Günümüze dek, problemli internet kullanımını test etmeye yönelik olarak geliştirilen ölçme araçlarında da söz konusu temel özellikler üzerinde durulmuştur (Brenner, 1997; Caplan, 2002; Ceyhan, Ceyhan ve Gürcan, 2007; Kayri ve Günüç, 2009; Özcan ve Buzlu, 2005).”
The Role of Online Infidelity Behaviors in the Link between Mental Illness and Social Media Intrusion
Abbasi, I. S., & Dibble, J. L. (2019) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439319857079 · Cited by 17
How computer and Internet use influences mental health: a five-wave latent growth model
Ai, M. (2012) · Asian Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/01292986.2012.725179 · Cited by 12
“PIU research aims to illuminate how problematic cognitions and behaviours associated with Internet use (e.g., compulsive Internet use) lead to negative outcomes in real life (e.g., Caplan, 2002, 2003; Liu & Peng, 2009).”
Background
Identification and Characterization of Adolescent Internet User’s Profiles
Boubeta, A. R., Salgado, P. G., Picón, E., Tobío, T. B., & Mallou, J. V. (2015) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2015.55 · Cited by 12
Internet Sex Offenders
Middleton, D. (2009) · doi:10.1002/9780470714362.ch12 · Cited by 12
The impact of physical activity on internet addiction among college students: the chain mediation role of rumination and mindfulness
Wang, S., Cheng, Y., Yang, Y., & Lu, B. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-25053-5 · Cited by 15
“Specifically, rumination, as a negative and repetitive thinking style, intensifies individuals’ focus on negative emotions and restricts cognitive flexibility, thereby undermining their capacity to adapt to real-life stressors [18].”
Association Between Child Abuse Experience and Pathological Internet Use Among Chinese University Students: The Mediating Roles of Security and Maladaptive Cognitions
Qin, N., Li, P., & Tian, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.830031 · Cited by 11
“Previous study have found problematic Internet use had negative influences on students’ school achievement (Davis, 2001; Caplan, 2002), and according to the present findings, two implications for the treatment and prevention of problematic Internet use to improve university students’ school…”
BackgroundInfluential
The Immersion in the Metaverse: Cognitive Load and Addiction
Bojić, L., Agatonović, M., & Guga, J. (2024) · Springer series on cultural computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-57746-8_11 · Cited by 11
Exploring user-avatar bond profiles: Longitudinal impacts on internet gaming disorder
Brown, T., Smith, R., Zarate, D., Griffiths, M. D., & Stavropoulos, V. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2024.108340 · Cited by 11
Longitudinal bidirectional relations between problematic internet game use and nonsuicidal self-injury among early adolescents: The mediating role of internalizing symptoms
Gong, X., Zhou, J., & Hao, S. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108564 · Cited by 11

Authors: Caplan, S. E.
Affiliations: University of Delaware (US)
Corresponding author: Caplan, Scott E
ORCID: Caplan, Scott E
Venue: Computers in Human Behavior
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2002-09
Volume: 18
Issue: 5
Pages: 553-575
ISSN: 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0747-5632(02)00004-3
OpenAlex: W1970339110
Cited by: 1,279
References: 30
Citations by year: 2026: 40 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 98 · 2021: 93 · 2020: 126 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 75 · 2012: 66
FWCI: 15.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
Locations: Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Technology in Education
Keywords: problematic internet use, psychosocial well-being, scale development, depression, loneliness, shyness, self-esteem, compulsive internet use, undergraduate students

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Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory-based cognitive–behavioral measurement instrument

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