Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory-based cognitive–behavioral measurement instrument

“Moreover, this is in line with a growing body of evidence relating to Internet addiction in general (Caplan, 2002; Suratt, 2006; Tang & Zhou, 2009) and evidence that use of Facebook and other SNSs can be addictive (Muise, Christofides, & Desmerais, 2009; van Rooij, Schoenmakers, van de Eljnden, &…”

“…Scale (Lee & Ahn, 2002); (b) the Online Game Playing Questionnaires (Charlton & Danforth, 2007); (c) the Internet Addiction Scale (Young, 1999); (d) the Internet Related Problem Scale (Armstrong, Phillips, & Saling, 2000); and (e) the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (Caplan, 2002).”

“Research on problematic Internet use has indicated that individuals often use the Internet for mood alteration (Caplan, 2002).”

“The three items employed as indicators of POSI were based on a measure by Caplan 39 and were adapted for Italian students.”

“…are: the process of typing, the role of internet as a medium for com munication, the information gained, particular applications (e.g. email, gambling, video games, pornography and multiuser domains/dungeons – MUDs) and the anonymity afforded by the internet (Griffiths, 1998; Caplan, 2002).”

“Those terms indicate that users exceed a normal or planned amount of time online, and cannot control their online activity along with a feeling of guilt.(4) Also, process gratifications—the actual use of the medium itself that pulls users away from the outside world to the virtual world—are more likely than content gr…”

“11,21,22 With a specific application of the Internet—online games—Ng and Wiemer-Hastings 23 found that online game players encountered more usage problems than offline video game players, including playing for more than 8 continuous hours, losing sleep, being told that they spend too much time…”

“Choi and Lee(18) emphasized that overuse of smartphones leads to many problems, including social media dependency, nomophobia, and problematic Internet use, which has negative effects on the psychological, social, academic, and professional life of an individual.(19,20) Nomophobia is described as the anxiety and distr…”

“Psychological dependency on MMOG was measured with the adapted withdrawal subscale of the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale ( Caplan, 2002 ).”

“While previous research has shown that lonely individuals are more likely to develop problematic Internet use behaviour (Caplan, 2002), the impact of remote e-working on loneliness remains unclear.”

“However, pathological Internet use (PIU), which is characterized by excessive or compulsive Internet use and a preoccupation with and loss of control over this use, results in negative personal and professional consequences for users (Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001) and may be detrimental (Greenfield & Yan, 2006).”

“Preference for social interaction in OSGs was measure d with 11 items adapted from a scale measuring preference for online social interaction (Caplan, 2002, 2003 ).”

“Both general PIU and Internet gaming are significantly associated with comorbid psychopathologies, risktaking and self-harming behaviors, and an overall reduction in psychological well-being (Caplan, 2002; Gentile et al., 2011; Ha et al., 2007; Kaess et al., 2014; Ko et al., 2009; Lemmens et al., 2011; Van Rooij et al…”

“However, the homogeneity test found significant differences in the link between high restraint indicator and Internet addiction across the Internet addiction measures (QBET = 7.626, df = 3, p > 0.05); in this case, the relationship was weaker among CIAS, compared to other internet addiction measures (| rCIAS| < | rIAT…”

“Using factor analysis methods, Caplan [12] and Widyanto and Mcmurran [13] created their own measures.”

“The 29-item Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) (Caplan, 2002), based on Davis’ (2001) cognitive-behavioral model of Problematic Internet Use (PIU), was modified to examine levels of problematic SNS (Spraggins, 2009).”

“The theoretical foundations and psychometric properties of other instruments have been incompletely described or lack support from primary data (Caplan, 2002; Davis, Flett, & Besser, 2002).”

“Factor analysis of the GPUIS identified seven subdimensions, including mood alteration, perceived social benefits available online, negative outcomes associated with Internet use, compulsive Internet use, excessive amounts of time spent online, withdrawal symptoms when away from the Internet, and perceived social cont…”

“…the Internet provides, and perceiving more interpersonal control online than offline, leads to excessive use and the developmen t of compulsi ons, withdrawal symptoms and negative social, psychological, and/or occupationa l consequences in the user’s offline life (Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001 ).”

“Supporting this contention, researchers have found shyness to hold significant relationships with social uses of the Internet.(13,14,16,18,26,29) However, it remains unknown whether the increased involvement within these spaces is contributing to tangible social benefits, such as increased social support or an expansi…”

“Students may consider the internet as a way to either escape from their negative feelings (e.g., depressive mood; Li, G et al., 2019; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) or satisfy a need that is unmet in their offline lives (Caplan, 2002).”

“The negative influence provides social implications of media addiction above and beyond psychological and practical implications (Caplan, 2002, 2005; Samaha & Hawi, 2016; Young, 2004).”

“Thus the findings of the present study may explain associations found in previous studies between low self-esteem (Caplan, 2002), loneliness (Hamburger & Artzi, 2003; Morahan-Martin & Schumcther, 2003; Stepanikova, Nie, & He, 2010), social anxiety (Shepherd & Edelmann, 2005), and depression…”

“…(Kuss et al. 2013), sensation seeking (Shi et al. 2011), impulsivity (Meerkerk et al. 2009; Mottram and Fleming 2009; Shi et al. 2011), and shyness (Caplan 2002; Chak and Leung 2004) are associated with PIU, as well as other psychological factors such as social anxiety (De Leo and Wulfert 2013;…”

“It is questionable on the extent to which IA is itself the Baddiction^ or whether its aetiology relates to other pre-existing conditions, which may be gratified through Internet domains (Caplan 2002).”

“Indeed, Caplan (2002, 2003) found that those who preferred online social interaction and experienced perceived social benefits were more likely to experience the negative outcomes associated with pathological Internet use (PIU).”

“The motivation to use the Internet for mood regulation is a cognitive symptom of problematic Internet use in general (Caplan, 2002, 2007) and a predictor of negative outcomes (Caplan, 2003). In addition, LaRose et al. (2003) found that using the Internet to relieve feelings of depression, defined as self-reactive ince…”

“Addictive behaviors often lead to adverse consequences, such as lower work/school performance or family conflict (Billieux et al., 2008; Caplan, 2002).”

“The characteristics of the “mood regulator” profile use match the theoretical model proposed by Caplan [9,11] but without problems due to negative consequences.”

“The GPIUS is a self-report 29-item scale developed by Caplan [49] to assess the extent and severity of internet addiction and to assess the overall potential harms of internet addiction.”

“Researchers have reported that problematic Internet use is a coping venue for limited social skills which result into regulatory difficulties (Caplan, 2002).”

“On the other hand, it may be that depressed individuals feel a diminished sense of selfworth and turn to SM interactions as a means of validation.(12) Experimental research largely supports findings from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies showing positive effects on various well-being indices when taking a break…”

“The mental rewards SNS use provide drive excessive SNS use resulting in a significant negative influence on quality of life (Andreassen, Torsheim, Brunborg, & Pallesen, 2012; Caplan, 2002; Schou Andreassen & Pallesen, 2014).”

“Second, mood regulation refers to the use of the Internet to reduce anxiety, feelings of isolation, or negative emotions (Caplan, 2002).”

“…Finkenauer, Kerkhof,& Billedo, 2014), which reflects an internet addiction (Cheng & Li, 2014), problematic or pathological internet use (e.g., Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000), internet dependence (e.g., Wang, 2001) and associated lower psychological wellbeing…”

“Individuals exposed to stress cope with stressful situations or try to relieve their stress in various ways, such as by taking drugs and escape from reality, as the latter of which may include excessive and compulsive use of media (Caplan 2002, 2010; Maroney et al. 2018).”

“Limitations to the “the more the better” account have been problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002; Tokunaga & Rains, 2016; Yellowlees & Marks, 2007) and Internet or smartphone addiction (Brand, Laier, & Young, 2014; Chóliz, 2010; Griffiths, 1996), mostly understood as clinically defined minority…”

“To create the instrument, an extensive review was conducted of the literature and the instruments previously employed to evaluate problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002; Pratarelli & Browne, 2002; Pratarelli, Browne & Johnson, 1999).”

“…samples, multiple case studies, and explorations of several specific psychosocial correlates of Internet addiction, such as personality and social aspects (e.g., Armstrong et al., 2000; Morahan-Martin and Schumacher, 2000; Shapira et al., 2000; Chou, 2001; Kubey et al., 2001; Caplan, 2002).”

“Research on PIU has also revealed significant relationships between internet use and the management of emotional difficulties and negative life outcomes (Caplan, 2002, 2010).”

“Problematic Internet use may be associated with lower levels of offline social support (Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001; Kraut et al., 2002) and therefore may apply in particular to those belonging to vulnerable populations, including people with psychosis.”

“…in establishing close relations in real social life may use the internet in an uncontrolled manner, thinking that they can make friends in virtual environments and this meet provides them with an opportunity to meet these needs (establishing close friendships) (Caplan, 2002; Lin & Tsai, 2002).”

“All variables were operationalized with modified versions of subscales from the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS; see Caplan, 2002).”

“Taking into account the fact that the GPIUS measures outcomes of Internet use in addition to cognitions and behaviors associated with use, higher scores by definition indicate more problematic use.”

“However, research by Caplan (2002) suggested that the addiction framework suffers from three limitations: (1) it lacks conceptual or theoretical specificity; (2) there is a paucity of empirical research within the addiction paradigm and (3) it fails to account for what people are actually doing…”

“A preference for online social interactions stems from the belief that relationships online are safer, more comfortable and less threatening than face-to-face interactions [18,36].”

“Several tools have been developed and tested for their psychometric properties; these include the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) (10), Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (11), and Korea internet addiction scale (12).”

“Various terminologies have been utilized to date, including Internet addiction (IA) (Ghassemzadeh, Shahraray, & Moradi, 2008; Young, 1998), Internet dependence (Lu, 2008), problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002), pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001), and compulsive Internet use (Greenfield, 1999; Meerkerk, Van Den…”

“…not an essential feature of gambling — similarly, it is not an essential feature for shopping addiction or pornography addiction, because it is plausible to suppose that these dependencies would exist in the absence of technology and/or the Internet (Caplan, 2002; Casale et al., 2014; Davis, 2001).”

“…examining individuals’ excessive Internet use and hypothesized that psychosocial problems such as depression predispose individuals to develop maladaptive cognitions associated with Internet use (Caplan, 2002), leading to undesirable negative outcomes such as disruptions to relationships and work.”

“Such Internet-related side effects are being diagnosed as problematic Internet use (PIU; Caplan, 2002; Shapir, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla, & McElroy, 2000), pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001), or Internet addiction (Douglas et al., 2008; Young, 1998).”

“While “Internet gaming disorder” explicitly focuses on gaming activities, other forms of Internet use may also have addictive potential [7–10].”

“Internet addiction is also correlated with depression and anxiety as well as impulsivity (Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001; Johnson et al., 2003; Young & Rogers, 1998).”

“ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: 14 January 2015 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01562”

“According to existing literature, the pathways to adolescents’ problematic behaviours, such as problematic Internet use (PIU), can be explained with psychosocial, individual, and social protective and risk factors (Jessor 1987; Ary et al. 1999; Caplan 2002; Panahi 2016).”