Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory-based cognitive–behavioral measurement instrument

“, Watters, Keefer, Kloosterman, Summerfeldt, & Parker, 2013) to as many as seven (Caplan, 2002). Although Siomos, Floros, Mouzas, and Angelopoulos (2009) found four factors in a Greek sample, they always used it as unidimensional in their studies (Floros & Siomos, 2013; Floros, Siomos, Fisoun, Dafouli, & Geroukalis, 2…”

“However, in his study, Caplan (2002) measured generalized problematic Internet use of 386 undergraduate students and found that loneliness and weakened self-esteem are associated with negative outcomes of Internet use at most.”

“…social networking is still lacking, despite scholarly findings showing that preexisting psychosocial problems, in association with maladaptive cognitions about self, might lead to problematic cognitions, behaviors, and negative outcomes linked to Internet-related activities (Caplan, 2002).”

“…pointed out that although several studies report a significant positive correlation between loneliness and negative outcomes due to Internet use (Caplan, 2002; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2003), the relationship between loneliness and preference for online social interaction should be further…”

“Various nomenclatures include: Internet addiction (Young, 1999), Internet addiction disorder (Goldberg, 1996), Internet dependency (Wang, 2001), problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002), pathological Internet use (Davis, 2001), and Internet abuse (Fortson et al., 2007).”

“Third, while in this study, the IAT questionnaire was used, as most studies in the field have done, it is important to acknowledge that other tools that measure other aspects of addictive behavior have also been developed (Davis, 2001; Caplan, 2002, 2007; Demtrovics et al., 2008; Ko et al., 2009).”

“Families and organizations can encourage more offline healthy social activities such as family parties, meeting with friends, and attending cultural events.”

“Caplan (2002) suggested excessive Internet use was similar to other problematic behavioral dependencies and compulsions, and Sheldon and Howitt (2007) argued compulsively accessing pornography on the Internet is also an addiction.”

“Problematic Internet use is a multidimensional symptom comprising negative social, academic, or professional consequences ( Caplan, 2002 , 2003 , 2005 ).”

“For example, most studies examining the links between shyness and GPIU have looked unidirectionally from either shyness to GPIU (Caplan, 2002; Casale & Fioravanti, 2011), GPIU to shyness (Ero glu et al., 2013), or from shyness to GPIU through maladaptive cognitions (Tian, Bian, Han, Wang, & Gao,…”

“Caplan (2002) developed the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) based on Davis' (2001) cognitive-behavioral model and suggestedmood alteration, social benefits, negative outcomes, compulsive use, too much time online, withdrawal and social control as the seven subscales.”

“The findings were mostly consistent with previous claims that individual differences (e.g. personality traits or moods during usage) could help discriminate between addiction and non-addiction (Armstrong et al., 2000; Caplan, 2002, 2006; Byun et al., 2009).”

“…Omitted Included PIUQ (Thatcher & Goolam, 2005a) Included Included Included Included Included Included Relational resource deficits tradition GPIUS (Caplan, 2002) Included Included Omitted Included Included Omitted OCS (Davis et al., 2002) Included Included Omitted Included Included Omitted…”

“Nomophobia has negative effects on the psychological, social, academic, and professional life of an individual (Beard and Wolf 2001; Caplan 2002).”

“The GPIU scale (Caplan 2002) was used to examine the mood alteration, social benefit, negative outcomes, compulsivity, excessive time, withdrawal and interpersonal control related to online chatting.”

“The literature suggests that existing individual differences such as loneliness, depression, certain personality traits, and low selfesteem may increase a person’s susceptibility to developing CIU (Caplan, 2002; Meerkerk et al., 2010; Odacı & Çelik, 2013; Weiser, 2001).”

“While IAD is not yet considered as an addiction or mental disorder in the DSM-5 [19], there are ample studies, mainly based on self-reported psychological questionnaires, showing negative consequences in daily life in terms of behavioral components, psychosocial factors, symptom management, psychiatric comorbidity, cl…”

“Between 2002 and 2010, Caplan [15,16] tested and updated this model for GPIU, indicating some users had a preference for online social interactions and used the Internet for mood regulation, which predicted deficient online self-regulation (i.e., compulsive Internet use and a cognitive preoccupation regarding the Inte…”

“Over the last two decades, several labels have been used to describe Internet overuse, such as Internet addiction [9–11], problematic Internet use [12], and pathological Internet use [13], thus reflecting the lack of scientific consensus on how this phenomenon should be theoretically defined, operationalized, and meas…”

“Several terms associating with the concept " Addiction " and " Online Addiction " , were used in the previous literatures (Caplan, 2002, Chen et al., 2004, Douglas et al., 2008, Thadani & Cheung, 2011).”

“Some reports remaining after the initial screening were also excluded because the same data were reported in separate publications (e.g., Alavi, Maracy, Jannatifard, & Eslami, 2011; Alavi et al., 2012; Caplan, 2002, 2003).”

“Precisely from this model, Caplan (2002) developed an instrument to measure different components of dysfunctional use of this technological resource, the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS).”

“Empirical studies have also shown an association between problematic internet use and low self-esteem both in cross-sectional (10, 32-35) and longitudinal studies (36).”

“…instability, and academic and social problems (e.g., marital and family problems) (e.g., Amichai-Hamburger & Ben-Artzi, 2003; Beard & Wolf, 2001; Caplan, 2002; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000; Scherer, 1997; Young, 1998; Young & Rogers, 1998; for recent reviews and meta-analyses see Byun et…”

“Since 2002 when Caplan (2002) called attention to the multiple definitions of problematic Internet use, scholars continue to be faced with the lack of agreement on how to define the construct, a decade later.”

“20 Increased interest in Internet addiction has prompted the development of instruments such as the Internet Addiction Test, 13 the Pathological Internet Use Scale, 21 and the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 22 for assessing Internet use behavior.”

“For example, it has been suggested that individuals with low self-worth may log on to social media seeking validation.(23) Other studies have suggested individuals with depression are drawn to self-isolation and may prefer social media interactions over other forms of socialization.”

“There are individual differences in the association between stress and addiction behavior, shyness may be one of them (Caplan, 2002; Chak and Leung, 2004; Gao T. et al., 2018).”

“A commonly held assumption is that problematic Internet use is best predicted by the time spent online; however, empirical fi ndings have not supported this consideration (Caplan, 2002; Davis, Flett, & Besser, 2002; Demetrovics et al., 2008).”

“Members of stigmatised or marginalised groups may find online platforms a useful outlet for countering minority stress (Caplan, 2002).”

“24,25 Individuals categorized as addicted to the Internet showed lower levels of explicit self-esteem.”

“Related terms in the literature are Internet addiction (e.g., Young, 1998), problematic (e.g., Caplan, 2002; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2000) or pathological Internet use (e.g., Davis, 2001), and Internet dependence (e.g., Wang, 2001).”

“In addition to maladaptive cognitions, dysfunctional behaviors (Caplan 2002; Young 1999), such as an inability to engage in social, familial, and work relationships, and the use of the Internet as a way of escaping psychological problems also lead to problematic Internet use ( Caplan 2002 ).”

“Moreover, it has been shown that IA in general is associated with various psychiatric comorbidities such as depression (e.g., Caplan, 2002; Yen et al., 2007b; Sariyska et al., 2015), anxiety disorder (e.g., Bernardi & Pallanti, 2009; Sariyska et al., 2015), or attention deficit hyperactivity…”

“It was developed on the basis of a deep review of the main scales previously proposed by other authors, 35–37 and the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Gambling Disorder and Internet Gaming Disorder were taken into account, as well as the results of a preliminary study.”

“It also includes items related to the negative consequences as defined within Caplan ’ s (2002, 2010) Problematic Use Model.”

“(3) Two items were borrowed from the GPIUS (Caplan, 2002), as they were obviously different in meaning from items in the OCS.”

“22 To date, seven scales have been developed for adolescents (see Table 1), almost all of them in Asia, and based on self-reports of high school students.”

“…(2015), the term problematic Internet use (PIU) has been adopted by a majority of researchers who employ the cognitive-behavioral model (i.e., Caplan, 2002, 2010; Davis, 2001) and the social-cognitive model of unregulated Internet use developed by LaRose and colleagues (i.e., Kim, LaRose, &…”

“Excessive Internet users have also been termed as problematic, pathological, maladaptive and addictive (Beard and Wolf 2001; Caplan 2002; Davis 2001).”

“Previous studies reported that among different types of problematic use of the Internet, PSMU has the most salient effect on dysregulating emotional management [46, 47].”

“Caplan (2002) suggested that individuals with generalized PIU are “drawn to the experience of being online, in and of itself” (p. 556).”

“…Internet in order to compensate social deficits like loneliness (Ebeling-Witte, Frank, & Lester, 2007), which was found to be associated with PIU (Caplan, 2002; Chak & Leung, 2004; Scealy, Phillips, & Stevenson, 2002), and tend to prefer the sheltered environment of the Internet to real life…”

“This study also contributes to advance research on FA and on the cognitivebehavioral model of problematic Internet use (Caplan, 2002, 2003, 2010), suggesting that it may be usefully applied to the Facebook context.”

“The current debate concerns the profile of an internet abuser as well as detailed descriptions of key causal processes involved in problematic internet use (Caplan, 2002 ).”

“480 to emerge from the PIU literature is that people who report negative outcomes associated with their Internet use are especially drawn to its communicative functions (Caplan, 2002, 2003; Chak & Leung, 2004).”

“…regions (especially the DLPFC) were closely related to IA, the aggravation of which might be associated with weakened cognitive control and stronger craving responses (Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001; Dong et al., 2012; Kuss and Griffiths, 2012; Şenormancı et al., 2010; Widyanto and Griffiths, 2006).”

“Rather, as argued in the Conceptual Background section, many other elements, such as personality, mental states, family, demographic and social factors can possibly explain the remaining variance in levels of addiction to using a hedonic IS [11, 12, 13, 20].”

“Concerning online gaming, ten studies focused on online gaming addiction, which was measured, among others, with the Game Addiction Scale ( Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2009) and the Assessment of Internet and Computer Game Addiction (AICA-S-gaming) (W € ol fl ing, Müller, & Beutel, 2011), an adapted gaming version of…”

“…those adolescents who overly use the Internet, who cannot control their behavior online, and who may develop symptoms of compulsive Internet use (Morahan-Martin and Schumacher, 2000), as well as Internet addiction (Young, 1998) or PIU (Caplan, 2002; Shapira et al., 2003; Gámez-Guadix et al., 2013).”

“…of those who are more inclined to Internet addiction are shyer (Caplan 2005; Chak and Leung 2004), have deficiency in social skills (Caplan 2002, 2005), are more introverted (Kraut et al. (2002a, b), are lonely (Caplan 2002), and have external locus of control (Hamburger and Ben-Artzi 2000).”

“The current study used an adapted version of the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS 39 ); ‘‘Internet use’’ was replaced with ‘‘Computer-mediated social networking.’’”

“Since the conception of the IAT, other assessment instruments have been developed, such as the Chen Internet Addiction Scale, [70] Compulsive Internet Use Scale, [71] Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire, [72] Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale, [73] Internet-Related Addictive Behavior Inventory [52] and Pat…”

“Although many terms are used, when referring to addiction or inappropriate or excessive uses of technologies, they refer mainly to the Internet (e.g., Internet addiction , Young, 1998; problematic Internet use , Caplan, 2002; excessive Internet use , Hansen, 2002; etc.).”

“The cognitive-behavioral model of PIU (Caplan, 2002, 2003; Davis, 2001) explores the role of dysfunctional cognitions and learning processes in the development and maintenance of PIU (Davis, 2001; Caplan, 2002; Douglas et al., 2008).”

“004 Caplan, S. E. (2002). Problematic Internet use and psychosocial”

“Cognitive-behavioral theory drives that human behavior is a derivative of cognitions and affections (Caplan, 2002).”

“Our study further generalized previous works by demonstrating that trait procrastinators are also more likely to overuse mobile phones, which is also considered as a form of passive coping (Caplan, 2002).”

“Caplan (2002) stated that there is need more researches regarding to how problematic Internet use might be related to mental health or social well-being to explain why Internet use appears to be problematic for some individuals. Shepherd and Edelmann (2005) suggest that social anxiety can influence Internet use as wel…”