Across the Indian Ocean: the prehistoric movement of plants and animals

Peninsular India's grey junglefowl appears to have provided a key gene found in many modern chickens, namely the gene for yellow legs.

“whereas peninsular India's grey junglefowl appears to have provided a key gene found in many modern chickens, namely the gene for yellow legs, which are indeed distinct from the red legs of wild red junglefowl, and white and black-legged chickens (Eriksson et al. 2008).”

• cites Eriksson et al. 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Phylogenetic Analysis; page unavailable) show that the domestic yellow-skin allele clusters with grey junglefowl sequences, and the Discussion identifies grey junglefowl as its most likely source. The cited passages do not establish the sentence’s specific comparison with red-legged wild red junglefowl and white- or black-legged chickens. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Chickens were probably brought into domestication more than once, as suggested by genetic data.

“Across this area, chickens were probably brought into domestication more than once, as suggested by genetic data, although good zooarchaeological data remains scarce (see Fuller 2007: 400-401; Kanginakudru et al. 2008;Berthouly-Salazar et al. 2010).”

• cites Fuller 2007: 400-401Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kanginakudru et al. 2008 sourceSupported
• cites Berthouly-Salazar et al. 2010 sourceSupported

Claims for earlier bananas in Uganda at Munsa are more dubious due to stratigraphic dating issues and questions about preserved morphology.

“Claims for earlier bananas in Uganda, at Munsa (Lejju et al. 2006), are more dubious, due especially to stratigraphic dating issues but also due to questions about preserved morphology (Neumann & Hildebrand 2009).”

• cites Lejju et al. 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Neumann & Hildebrand 2009 sourcePartly supported

  In “Current archaeobotanical evidence: The state of the art” (page unavailable), the paper questions the Munsa phytoliths’ identification and notes that dating of the lower core relies on interpolation, with a large hiatus between the lower and upper parts. It does not support the claim’s emphasis on stratigraphic dating as the chief problem: it says questions of authenticity relate mainly to identification. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

There is a large accumulation of evidence for African crops in India from the second millennium BC, including finds from 33 sites.

“in contrast, there is now a large accumulation of evidence for these crops in India from the second millennium BC, including finds from 33 sites (Figure 1, right inset).”

Iron Age trade is well documented from recent excavations at the urban site of Khao Sam Kaeo in southern Thailand, occupied from c. 400 BC.

“Iron Age trade is well documented from recent excavations at the urban site of Khao Sam Kaeo in southern Thailand (on the Malay Peninsula) occupied from c. 400 BC (Bellina-Pryce & Silapanth 2008).”

• cites Bellina-Pryce & Silapanth 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Black peppercorns were used to fragrance the nostrils of the deceased Pharaoh Ramses II (c.1200 BC).

“The first hint of this spice trade comes from the findings of valued black peppercorns that were used to fragrance the nostrils of the deceased Pharaoh Ramses II (c.1200 BC) (Plu 1985).”

• cites Plu 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There is little firm evidence that African crops arrived in India during the Harappan urban period (2600-2000 BC).

“A popular argument has been that these crops arrived in the Harappan urban period (2600-2000 BC), brought by Harappan 'seafarers' (e.g.Possehl 1997), but there is little firm evidence to support this.”

Five African crops reached South Asia shortly after c. 2000 BC.

“Five African crops (Figure 1) reached South Asia shortly thereafter (Boivin & Fuller 2009: 155-60;Fuller & Boivin 2009).”

• cites Boivin & Fuller 2009: 155-60Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Fuller & Boivin 2009 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

The high morphological variability of the Asian house shrew in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula suggests multiple introductions directly from South Asia and from early differentiated types of Southeast Asia.

“The high morphological variability of this species in East Africa and the Arabia Peninsula suggests multiple introductions directly from South Asia and from early differentiated types of Southeast Asia (Hutterer & Tranier 1990).”

• cites Hutterer & Tranier 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Genetic studies of rats in Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean point to origins in India, probably via Arabia or the Middle East.

“Genetic studies of rats in Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean point to origins in India, probably via Arabia or the Middle East (Hingston et al. 2005;Tollenaere et al. 2010).”

• cites Hingston et al. 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tollenaere et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The presence of a small number of Austronesian terms relating to boats and parts of boats in South Asian languages such as Hindi, Tamil, Sinhalese, Dhivehi and possibly Andamanese reinforces the impression of introduction of boat-building techniques from Island Southeast Asia.

“This impression is reinforced by the presence of a small number of Austronesian terms relating to boats and parts of boats that are found in South Asian languages such as in Hindi, Tamil, Sinhalese (Sri Lanka), Dhivehi (Maldive Islands) and possibly the languages of the Andamanese islanders.”

Wood charcoal identified as Santalum places sandalwood in the southern Deccan by c. 1300 BC.

“Wood charcoal from the latest Neolithic levels of Sanganakallu (Sannarachamma) in south India, identified as Santalum, however, places it in the southern Deccan by c. 1300 BC (Asouti & Fuller 2008: 135), and this argues for a human-mediated translocation by this time.”

• cites Asouti & Fuller 2008: 135Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A few potential weeds have been translocated from Africa to Asia or Asia to Africa, apparently via the Indian Ocean based on their absence from the flora of intervening land regions (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran).

“Elsewhere (Fuller & Boivin 2009) we have reviewed evidence for a few potential weeds that have been translocated from Africa to Asia or Asia to Africa, apparently via the Indian Ocean based on their absence from the flora of intervening land regions (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran).”

• cites Fuller & Boivin 2009 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The absence of a taxon from intervening land regions indicates that its dispersal occurred via the Indian Ocean rather than overland.

Difficulties with accurately identifying chicken bones from indigenous gallinaceous birds mean that reliable archaeology for African chickens is still limited.

“Unfortunately, difficulties with accurately identifying chicken bones from indigenous gallinaceous birds (ses MacDonald 1992) mean that reliable archaeology for African chickens is still limited.”

• cites MacDonald 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

African cereals slotted easily into the existing subsistence regimes that were already established in monsoonal India.

“African cereals slotted easily into the existing subsistence regimes that were already established in monsoonal India”

Most words for 'outrigger' in South Asia and East Africa are not clearly derived from any Austronesian source.

“most words for 'outrigger' in South Asia and East Africa are not clearly derived from any Austronesian source”

Banana phytoliths are so far absent from the few phytolith studies conducted in India.

“Archaeological recovery of bananas usually relies on identification of phytoliths (Mbida et al. 2006), and these are so far absent from the few phytolith studies conducted in India (Fuller & Madella 2009).”

• cites Fuller & Madella 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Phytoliths in Iron Age pits in Cameroon imply that bananas had arrived and reached western Africa prior to the colonisation of Madagascar, perhaps by c. 500 BC.

“Recent archaeobotanical evidence, however, in the form of phytoliths in Iron Age pits in Cameroon, imply that bananas had arrived and reached western Africa prior to the colonisation of Madagasascar, perhaps by c. 500 BC (Mbida et al. 2006).”

• cites Mbida et al. 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Both Trianthema species came to the millet and sorghum fields of the African savannahs at some undated stage, where they persist as weeds to the present day.

“At some stage, as yet undated, both Trianthema species came to the millet and sorghum fields of the African savannahs, where they persist as weeds to the present day.”

Subsequent eastward spread of horse purslane is indicated by its occurrence today in dry rice fields in mainland Southeast Asia.

“Subsequent eastward spread is indicated by the occurrence today in dry rice fields in mainland Southeast Asia (Noda et al. 1985).”

• cites Noda et al. 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

From c. 2000 BC, elements of the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden sphere were brought within an extended India-Gulf trading network.

“From c. 2000 BC, elements of the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden sphere appear to have been brought within the remit of an extended India-Gulf trading network, presumably through the activities of the coastal societies of southern Arabia and/or the agency of Gujarati seafarers, as well as the involvement of an undetermined source in Africa.”

Zebu-hybrid cattle played an important role in the long-term success and southernmost spread of cattle pastoralists in eastern Africa.

“These zebu-hybrid cattle played an important role in the longterm success and southernmost spread of cattle pastoralists in eastern Africa (cf.Marshall 1989).”

• cites Marshall 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rice agriculture in the far south of India is normally dated after 1000 BC.

“At this date it is unclear whether any farming was practiced along the coastal plains of southern India, with rice agriculture in the far south of India normally dated after 1000 BC (Fuller et al. 2010), and it may be the case that the earliest pepper was moved between coastal hunter-fisher groups into the emerging network of Arabian Sea voyaging and exchange.”

• cites Fuller et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A westward extension of Austronesian-speaking seafarers was involved in the peopling of Madagascar.

“the inclusion of the Malagasy language in it implies that -complementary to the eastward spread of Austronesian into the Pacifica westward extension of Austronesian speaking seafarers was involved in the peopling of Madagascar.”

The pepper used for Ramses II was in all likelihood supplied by hunter-gatherer groups to coastal groups.

“This spice is endemic only to the wet forests of southern India (Asouti & Fuller 2008: 47), and in all likelihood was supplied by hunter-gatherer groups to coastal groups (Morrison 2002).”

• cites Morrison 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Trade and contact in the southern Red Sea began as early as the Neolithic, indicated by the movement of obsidian from Ethiopia to Yemen.

“Trade and contact in the southern part of the Red Sea began as early as the Neolithic, as indicated by the movement of obsidian from Ethiopia to Yemen (Khalidi 2009)”

• cites Khalidi 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Small-scale coastal societies were often the pioneers in creating cross-cultural contacts and translocating plants and animals in the early Indian Ocean.

“Similarly, there is mounting evidence that small-scale coastal societies were often the pioneers in creating cross-cultural contacts and translocating plants and animals in the early Indian Ocean (Boivin & Fuller 2009).”

• cites Boivin & Fuller 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Asian broomcorn millet left China on westward trade routes by c. 2200 BC.

“Moving in the other direction was the Asian broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), ultimately of Chinese origin, which had left China on westward trade routes by c. 2200 BC (Frachetti et al. 2010).”

• cites Frachetti et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The earliest pepper may have been moved between coastal hunter-fisher groups into the emerging network of Arabian Sea voyaging and exchange.

“At this date it is unclear whether any farming was practiced along the coastal plains of southern India, with rice agriculture in the far south of India normally dated after 1000 BC (Fuller et al. 2010), and it may be the case that the earliest pepper was moved between coastal hunter-fisher groups into the emerging network of Arabian Sea voyaging and exchange.”

A number of important cultivars in south India, especially amongst trees, have their likely wild origins in Southeast Asia.

“A number of important cultivars in south India, especially amongst trees, have their likely wild origins in Southeast Asia (Figure 2).”

The Arabian Sea corridor was in some ways a precursor to the later pepper route of the spice trade.

“The Arabian Sea corridor, which led to early species exchange between the savannahs of Africa and India, was in some ways a precursor to the later pepper route of the spice trade (cf.Miller 1968;Cappers 2006;Boivin et al. 2009).”

• cites Miller 1968Not matched

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• cites Cappers 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Boivin et al. 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Black pepper is endemic only to the wet forests of southern India.

“This spice is endemic only to the wet forests of southern India (Asouti & Fuller 2008: 47), and in all likelihood was supplied by hunter-gatherer groups to coastal groups (Morrison 2002).”

• cites Asouti & Fuller 2008: 47Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The hitherto separate trading spheres of the Persian/Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden became interlinked, probably at the end of the third millennium BC.

“The connections between Africa and India, which constitute the first act of the narrative of transoceanic connections in the north-western part of Indian Ocean (Figure 1), took place as the hitherto separate trading spheres of the Persian/Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea/Gulf of Aden became interlinked, probably at the end of the third millennium BC.”

The transfer of African crops to India took place at the end of the Harappan era, perhaps during the urban Harappan de-urbanisation process.

“What the dating evidence currently suggests is that this transfer of African crops took place at the end of the Harappan era, perhaps as the urban Harappan civilisation was undergoing its transformative de-urbanisation process (see Ratnagar 2000;Madella & Fuller 2006).”

• cites Ratnagar 2000Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Madella & Fuller 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

All stages of development point towards an insular Southeast Asian origin of the outrigger device.

“all stages of development point towards an insular Southeast Asian origin of the device”

The later centuries BC were a period of increasing flows across the Indian Ocean, mainly from east to west, at least from a species point of view.

“other lines of evidence, from plant and animal genetics, and linguistics, suggest that the later centuries BC were a period of increasing flows across the Indian Ocean, mainly it appears, at least from a species point of view, from east to west.”

In the first millennium BC, the Indian Ocean began to open up in the broad sense.

“Later still, in the first millennium BC, the Indian Ocean actually began to open up in the broad sense.”

Recognition of the value of exotic domesticated species amongst early farmers may be important in understanding some of these early movements.

“Recognition of the value of exotic domesticated species amongst early farmers (Hayden 2009) may be important in understanding some of these early movements.”

• cites Hayden 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

South Asian regions ecologically most similar to Southeast Asia, such as Orissa and Sri Lanka, probably played important roles in the initial adoption and adaptation of Southeast Asian cultivars to South Asia.

“This probably means that those South Asian regions ecologically most similar to Southeast Asia, such as Orissa (the north-east peninsula) and Sri Lanka, would have played important roles in the initial adoption and adaptation of Southeast Asian cultivars to South Asia.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The dry tropical woodlands and savannahs dominate much of peninsular India, and the wet tropical forests of Southeast Asia are poorly matched.

Horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum) is considered a subject of anthropogenic dispersal.

“In general we know less about weeds than about crops, but to take one example, we consider the horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum), a frequent weed in Gujarat from Harappan and Late Harappan sites, presumably of millet fields (Weber 1991;Reddy 1994), to be a subject of anthropogenic dispersal.”

• cites Weber 1991Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Reddy 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Small-scale maritime societies themselves were likely transformed by the contacts in which they engaged.

“Whatever the driving factors, it is likely that small-scale maritime societies themselves were also transformed by the contacts in which they engaged (Arnold 1995).”

• cites Arnold 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Those pieces of the puzzle that do fit together suggest patterns of inter-regional linkage that we can broadly constrain in time and space.

“Nevertheless, those pieces of the puzzle that do fit together suggest patterns of inter-regional linkage that we can broadly constrain in time and space.”

The presence of Santalum in the southern Deccan by c. 1300 BC argues for a human-mediated translocation of sandalwood by this time.

“Wood charcoal from the latest Neolithic levels of Sanganakallu (Sannarachamma) in south India, identified as Santalum, however, places it in the southern Deccan by c. 1300 BC (Asouti & Fuller 2008: 135), and this argues for a human-mediated translocation by this time.”

The westward movement of broomcorn millet from China appears to have been associated with its ritual value amongst steppe pastoralists.

“A parallel may be suggested with the westward movement of broomcorn millet from China, which appears to have been associated with its ritual value amongst steppe pastoralists (Frachetti et al. 2010).”

• cites Frachetti et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A northwestern Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea) zone gradually enabled contacts between savannah-oriented agricultural societies in India and Africa, starting about 2000 BC (and perhaps some centuries earlier).

“We can identify a northwestern Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea) zone that gradually enabled contacts between savannah-oriented agricultural societies in India and Africa, starting about 2000 BC (and perhaps some centuries earlier).”

In south India, the earliest finds of African domesticates (1600-1500 BC), metal objects and frequent spindle whorls (both c. 1500 BC) suggest a minimal age for Proto-South Dravidian.

“In south India, the earliest finds of African domesticates (1600-1500 BC), metal objects and frequent spindle whorls (both c. 1500 BC) suggest a minimal age for this proto-language.”

Chickens have their origins in the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), which is native from sub-Himalayan northern India through southern China and Southeast Asia.

“Like bananas, chickens are a staple food source of traditional African villages, but nevertheless, have their origins in the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), which is native from sub-Himalayan northern India through southern China and Southeast Asia.”

One challenge for agricultural translocations across the Bay of Bengal was that the dry tropical woodlands and savannahs that dominate much of peninsular India are poorly matched with the wet tropical forests of Southeast Asia.

“One challenge for agricultural translocations across the Bay of Bengal was that the dry tropical woodlands and savannahs that dominate much of peninsular India are poorly matched with the wet tropical forests of Southeast Asia.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The dry tropical woodlands and savannahs dominate much of peninsular India, and the wet tropical forests of Southeast Asia are poorly matched.

Many more species than domesticated crops have been moved by mistake, including commensal animals and agricultural weeds.

“While domesticated crops would have been carried and then propagated intentionally, many more species have been moved by mistake, including commensal animals and agricultural weeds (Figure 3).”

Exotic crops and animals in deeper antiquity were most likely luxury items conferring social or religious prestige and evidence of power.

“exotic crops and animals mostly likely also were in deeper antiquity: luxury items conferring social or religious prestige and evidence of power.”

The agency of small-scale seafaring societies at the margins of emerging polities likely accounts for the actual sea-movements.

“Nonetheless, the agency of small-scale seafaring societies at the margins of such emerging polities likely accounts for the actual sea-movements.”

The patterns of monsoon winds, trade winds and ocean currents around the Indian Ocean between summer and winter made long-distance voyages technically feasible.

“Of course the patterns of monsoon winds, trade winds and ocean currents around the Indian Ocean between summer and winter made these long-distance voyages technically feasible (Pearson 2003)”

• cites Pearson 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Intercultural contacts and exchanges around the margins of the Indian Ocean were important in creating some of the agricultural biodiversity we take for granted today.

“This attests to the importance of intercultural contacts and exchanges around the margins of the Indian Ocean in creating some of the agricultural biodiversity that we take for granted today.”

Through the early activities of small-scale maritime societies came wider social and economic transformations.

“And through the early activities of these small-scale societies came wider social and economic transformations.”

The distribution of Southeast Asian sail types, methods of plank-fastening and single or double outriggers around the coasts of India, Sri Lanka, East and south-eastern Africa suggests the introduction of boat-building techniques from Island Southeast Asia.

“The distribution of Southeast Asian sail types, methods of plank-fastening and single or double outriggers around the coasts of India, Sri Lanka, East and south-eastern Africa suggests the introduction of boat-building techniques from Island Southeast Asia (Figure 4).”

Several individual languages contributed to and became part of a shared Indian Ocean seafarers' lexicon, built on foundations of inter-ethnic trade networks that emerged many centuries before.

“that several individual languages contributed to and became part of a shared Indian Ocean seafarers' lexicon, built on the foundations of inter-ethnic trade networks that emerged many centuries before.”

• cites Mohebbi 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

True sandalwood appears to have come to south India from the east at this time.

“Another interesting tree that appears to have come to south India from the east at this time is the true sandalwood (Santalum album).”

The Austronesian tradition of Island Southeast Asia involved the sequential development and refinement of sail-boat technology, with single and double outrigger canoes and sails rigged along the ship's longitudinal axis making sailing against the wind increasingly efficient.

“It has long been recognised that the Austronesian tradition of Island Southeast Asia involved the sequential development and refinement of sail-boat technology, as single and doubleoutrigger canoes with sails rigged in the direction of the ship's longitudinal axis made sailing against the wind increasingly efficient (e.g.Doran 1981: 93;Mahdi 1999: 145).”

• cites Doran 1981: 93Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mahdi 1999: 145Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Banana phytoliths from Kot Diji in southern Pakistan could indicate a westward diffusion of bananas by sea from Island Southeast Asia to the Indus as early as 2000 BC.

“However, banana phytoliths from the Harappan site of Kot Diji in southern Pakistan (Fuller & Madella 2009) could indicate a westward diffusion of bananas by sea from Island Southeast Asia to the Indus as early as 2000 BC (Figure 2).”

• cites Fuller & Madella 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The Malagasy peopling of Madagascar was likely only the latest of a series of such movements.

“but there is a likelihood that this was only the latest of a series of such movements.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Malagasy peopling of Madagascar occurred sometime in the first millennium AD.

This period potentially provides the first evidence for Asian species introduction into the moist tropics of Africa.

“This period also potentially provides the first evidence for Asian species introduction into the moist tropics of Africa.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The banana phytoliths from Nkang in Cameroon provide evidence for Asian species introduction into the moist tropics of Africa.

The claim for Asian species introduction into Africa still rests heavily on the banana phytoliths from Nkang in Cameroon.

“While this claim still rests heavily on the banana phytoliths from Nkang in Cameroon”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The banana phytoliths from Nkang in Cameroon provide evidence for Asian species introduction into the moist tropics of Africa.

Sandalwood was probably originally wild in the driest parts of Indonesia, such as eastern Java and the Lesser Sundas.

“Sandalwood is probably originally wild in the driest parts of Indonesia, such as eastern Java and the Lesser Sundas, where its distribution appears natural on account of being adjacent to its many congeneric relatives of Island Southeast Asia, Australia and the Pacific (Fischer 1938;Burkill 1966Burkill : 1987;;Asouti & Fuller 2008: 116-17;Harbaugh & Baldwin 2008).”

• cites Fischer 1938Not matched

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• cites Burkill 1966Not matched

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• cites Asouti & Fuller 2008: 116-17Not matched

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Southern India and Sri Lanka played a role in shaping the diversity of chickens.

“While southern India is the native home to the unrelated wild grey junglefowl (Gallus sonneratii) and Sri Lanka boasts its own jungle fowl (Gallus lafayetii), both regions played a role in shaping the diversity of chickens.”

The emergence of the northwestern Indian Ocean corridor of exchange was followed by later eastward linkages between South Asia and Southeast Asia.

“The emergence of this corridor of exchange was followed by later eastward linkages between South Asia and Southeast Asia.”

Insular Southeast Asian involvement in the Indian Ocean flows is clear for the period of the Malagasy peopling of Madagascar sometime in the first millennium AD.

“The insular Southeast Asian involvement in this is certainly clear for the period of the Malagasy peopling of Madagascar sometime in the first millennium AD”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Malagasy peopling of Madagascar occurred sometime in the first millennium AD.