The boundaries of the internalizing and externalizing genetic spectra in men and women
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Background: The distribution and co-morbidity of common psychiatric disorders can be largely explained as manifestations of two broad psychopathological spectra of internalizing and externalizing disorders. Twin studies suggest that these spectra arise from genetic factors. Method: Structural equation twin modeling was applied to interview and questionnaire data on personality traits and lifetime psychiatric disorders on more than 5300 members of male–male (MM) and female–female (FF) twin pairs. Results: The best-fitting models for both the externalizing and internalizing spectra differed significantly in males and females. In males, the externalizing genetic common factor was best indexed by four disorders in the following order: antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), drug abuse/dependence (DAD), alcohol abuse dependence (AAD) and conduct disorder (CD). In females, the four disorders most closely related to the externalizing common factor were, in order: DAD, AAD, nicotine dependence (ND) and ASPD. Personality traits of novelty seeking (NS) and extraversion (E) better indexed the genetic externalizing spectrum in females than in males. In both males and females, major depression (MD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) best indexed the genetic internalizing common factor. Panic disorder (PD) and agoraphobia (AgP) better reflected the internalizing genetic common factor in women, and neuroticism (N) in men. Genetic correlations between the two spectra were estimated at + 0.53 in males and + 0.52 in females. Conclusions: The disorders that optimally index the genetic liability to externalizing and internalizing disorders in the general population differ meaningfully in men and women. In both sexes, these genetic spectra are better assessed by psychiatric disorders than by personality traits.
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Externalizing traits share genetic liability.
“Collectively, this group of correlated traits are classified as externalizing3. Twin studies have demonstrated that externalizing liability is highly heritable (~80%)4,5.”
From Multivariate analysis of 1.5 million people identifies genetic associations with traits related to self-regulation and addiction. (2021) · cites this paper as [11]
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- Authors
- Kendler, K. S., & Myers, J.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kendler, K. S.
- ORCID
- Kendler, K. S.
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2013-04-11
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 647-655
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- PMC
- PMC3825740
- OpenAlex
- W2165834902
- Semantic Scholar
- 724df9bc34b1ad337843c19766f23b581e521b0e
- Cited by
- 84
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 9.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (P20 AA107828, R37AA011408, P20AA017828)
- National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR031990)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- internalizing disorders, externalizing disorders, genetic susceptibility, sex differences, personality traits, novelty seeking, extraversion, neuroticism, antisocial personality disorder, substance abuse, conduct disorder, nicotine dependence, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, genetic correlation, psychiatric comorbidity
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Mental Disorders, Diseases in Twins, Exploratory Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Personality, Personality Assessment, Registries, Sex Factors, Virginia, Models, Statistical, Prevalence, Sex Distribution, Genetic Predisposition to Disease
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