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Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
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“Collectively, these skills enable students to regulate their bidirectional relations with their contexts by processing, manipulating, and refining information; organize and recognize patterns in information; evaluate their thinking and learning strategies; intentionally transfer knowledge to new situations; and apply knowledge to solve increasingly complex problems (e.g., Flavell, 1979;Lai, 2011).”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“metacognitive feedback which prompts learners to reflect, track their progress, and develop self-regulated learning (SRL) skills.”
From Directive, metacognitive, or a blend of both? A comparison of AI-generated feedback types on student engagement, confidence, and outcomes (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“This level of metacognitive engagement ' thinking about one's own thinking' is a hallmark of high-impact learning experiences (Flavell, 1979).”
From Co-creating custom GPTs: an autoethnographic study of undergraduate students as partners in generative AI innovation (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognition-cognition about cognition-encompasses the knowledge, monitoring, and regulation of one's own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
From The Metacognitive Paradox of AI-Assisted Creativity: A Theoretical Extension (2026) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Hence, metacognition can be divided into two components, knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schraw, 1998; Schraw & Moshman, 1995; Schraw & Sperling Dennison, 1994).”
From University students' Motivated Attention and use of regulation strategies on social media (2015) · cites this paper as Flavell, 1979
In the citing paper
“Metacognitive knowledge and experiences are interrelated [64].”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“A fifth potential barrier to insight is metacognition, or the processes which allow persons to be aware of and form integrated and complex ideas about the self and others.”
From Insight in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: relationship with behavior, mood and perceived quality of life, underlying causes and emerging treatments (2018) · cites this paper as [143]
Citations
Cites
Knowing when, where, and how to remember ; A problem of metacognition
Brown, A. L. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,469
Perspectives on the Development of Memory and Cognition
Kail, R. V., & Hagen, J. W. (1977) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 927
An Interview Study of Children's Knowledge about Memory
Kreutzer, M. A., Leonard, C., Flavell, J. H., & Hagen, J. W. (1975) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1165955 · Cited by 514
Self-citationRealizing That You Don't Understand: A Preliminary Investigation
Markman, E. M. (1977) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1977.tb01257.x · Cited by 415
Developmental changes in memorization processes
Flavell, J. H., Friedrichs, A. G., & Hoyt, J. D. (1970) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(70)90019-8 · Cited by 401
Self-citationBrown, A. L., Campione, J. C., & Barclay, C. R. (1979) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1979.tb04135.x · Cited by 185
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“When instructors provide students with the necessary tools to cultivate metacognitive learning strategies, improvements in student critical thinking, retention, and application of course concepts in novel situations may result (Cook et al., 2013; Flavell, 1979; Tanner, 2012).”
BackgroundMisu, L., Budayasa, I. K., & Lukito, A. (2018) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/947/1/012057 · Cited by 3
Serin, M. K., & Korkmaz, İ. (2018) · Adıyaman üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitüsü dergisi/Adıyaman üniversitesi sosyal bilimler enstitisü dergisi · doi:10.14520/adyusbd.327680 · Cited by 3
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“These skills and strategies included planning, information management strategies, comprehension monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and evaluation of progress and goals (Flavell 1979).”
BackgroundSocial Empowerment through Engineering Education in Developing Countries
de Freitas, C. C. S. (2018) · World Engineering Education Forum - Global Engineering Deans Council (WEEF-GEDC) · doi:10.1109/weef-gedc.2018.8629700 · Cited by 3
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Comparison of students’ metacognitive skills by gender on chemical bonding in chemistry
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“Metacognitive is divided into two categories: 1) knowledge is cognition which means knowledge of thinking and 2) regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979), where knowledge of cognition means the ability to monitor learning process or evaluation and conclusion of performance.”
BackgroundAprendizagem autorreguladora: aportes teóricos para subsidiar a educação científica
da Rosa, C. T. W., & da Rosa, A. W. (2019) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v9i1.1633 · Cited by 3
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“…and control, metacognitive knowledge and experience constitute an individual’s descriptive knowledge and experience about the interplay between the characteristics of his or her cognitive ability, the task at hand, and strategies adopted or available (Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2008; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundMethodKulišek, J., & Dolejš, M. (2019) · doi:10.5507/ff.19.24456546 · Cited by 3
Sabancı, O., Kurnaz, Ş., & Yürük, N. (2020) · Turkish Journal of Education · doi:10.19128/turje.657698 · Cited by 3
“Metacognition is originally expressed as knowledge and regulation of cognitive processes of an individual during learning processes (Brown, 1978; Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundComparative Study of Generating Metacognitive Competence Strategy of Elementary School Students
Setyaningsih, Y., Listiani, F. D., & Yudono, K. D. A. (2020) · Lensa Kajian Kebahasaan Kesusastraan dan Budaya · doi:10.26714/lensa.10.1.2020.117-136 · Cited by 3
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Andrianov, A., Ziabari, S. S. M., & Gerritsen, C. (2020) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2020.10.010 · Cited by 3
“, attention self-regulation) and monitoring the stream of consciousness (Bishop et al., 2004; Flavell, 1979).”
Einführung in das Konzept der Mentalisierung
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Using exam reflections to augment learning
Gorres, B. K. (2020) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00028.2020 · Cited by 3
“The series of questions also emphasize the “strategy” component originally included in Flavell’s description of metacognition (3).”
BackgroundKemaloğlu-Er, E. (2020) · RumeliDE Dil ve Edebiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi :/RumeliDe Dil ve Edebiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.29000/rumelide.792243 · Cited by 3
“On the other hand, metacognition pertains to knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundAnalysis of students’ metacognition in solving mathematics problems
Imaya, I. A., Budiyono, B., & Nurhasanah, F. (2020) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1613/1/012040 · Cited by 3
Janusik, L. A., & Varner, T. L. (2020) · International Journal of Listening · doi:10.1080/10904018.2020.1833724 · Cited by 3
“Additionally, both L(1) and L(2) listening include the three types of metacognitive knowledge, which are person, task, and strategy (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundDébat, conceptualisation et éducation physique et sportive
Zerai, Z., Gréhaigne, J.-F., & Godbout, P. (2021) · Ejournal de la recherche sur l intervention en éducation physique et sport -eJRIEPS · doi:10.4000/ejrieps.5642 · Cited by 3
“Métacognition (Flavell, 1979 ; Godbout, 2003) et pratique réflexive sont des processus mentaux qui visent à apprendre à partir d’expériences vécues, par un retour de la conscience sur son propre fonctionnement, dans le but de prendre conscience de ses manières d'agir et de réagir, dans les…”
BackgroundMetacognitive therapy for Alcohol Use Disorder: Theoretical foundations and treatment principles
Mansueto, G., Caselli, G., & Spada, M. M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816720-5.00021-9 · Cited by 3
Chiou, K. S., Klecha, H., Jones, M., & Dobryakova, E. (2021) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000680 · Cited by 3
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The relationship between reading skills and metalinguistic awareness
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“These dimensions consist of the individual’s knowledge regarding memory, learning, linguistics, attention and social cognition skills [11] [14] [15].”
Backgroundda Rosa, C. T. W., & dos Santos, A. C. T. (2021) · Revista Brasileira de Pesquisa em Educação em Ciências · doi:10.28976/1984-2686rbpec2021u14351458 · Cited by 3
Critical Thinking in the Structure of Educational Programs in Russian Universities
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Keshavan, M. S., & Eack, S. M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108163682.004 · Cited by 3
Metacognition, entrepreneurial profile, and perception of success
Estrela, P. M. C. D. A., Bruni, A. L., & Filho, R. N. L. (2021) · Revista Catarinense da Ciência Contábil · doi:10.16930/2237-766220213166 · Cited by 1
Cho, M., & Choi, M. (2021) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.1021 · Cited by 3
“…refers to the ability to understand and operate one's own cognitive process, which refers to the self- evaluation process of thinking about one's own thought, the process of the thinking, the perceived result, the actual result of thinking and the thinking that gave the result (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundTacit Knowledge Construction in Studio-based Learning: A Conceptual Framework
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Leong, J. Y., & Lim, C.-H. (2021) · IJAEDU- International E-Journal of Advances in Education · doi:10.18768/ijaedu.961144 · Cited by 3
Metacognitive Strategy and Science Problem-Solving Abilities in Elementary School Students
Teknologi Pendidikan, U. N. S., & Arianto, F. (2021) · International Journal of Social Science and Human Research · doi:10.47191/ijsshr/v4-i9-42 · Cited by 3
“Children have limitations in knowledge, cognition or metacognition, and little monitoring in memory (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundThu, H. D. T., & Hong, N. D. (2021) · International Conference on Education and Multimedia Technology (ICEMT) · doi:10.1145/3481056.3481092 · Cited by 3
Chrysochoou, E., Vivas, A. B., Cana, L., & Δημητρίου, Α. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.2002875 · Cited by 3
“Metacognition, knowing about © 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group CONTACT Elisavet Chrysochoou echrysoc@psy.auth.gr knowing (Efklides, 2008; Flavell, 1979), and Theory of Mind, awareness of mental states (Wellman, 2014), are components of cognizance.”
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How Economists Read Economic Texts
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THE ROLE OF METACOGNITION STRATEGY TO ENHANCE READING COMPREHENSION
Fadilah, F. D., Ridwan, N. M., Putri, N. D., Prayoga, S., & Ihsan, M. T. (2021) · Jurnal Riset dan Inovasi Pembelajaran · doi:10.51574/jrip.v1i3.231 · Cited by 8
“According to Flavell (1979), Metacognition is significant in the disciplines of reading comprehension and self-control, emphasizing the link between reading comprehension and Metacognition.”
BackgroundInfluentialEser, R., & Ayaz, H. (2021) · Research in Pedagogy · doi:10.5937/istrped2102639e · Cited by 3
“The concept of metacognition is defined as the effective monitoring of cognitive processes, their regulation as a result of monitoring, and their harmonization with other cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluentialNahar, J., & Mallik, S. (2022) · European Journal of English Language Teaching · doi:10.46827/ejel.v7i1.4145 · Cited by 3
“The concept of metacognition includes thinking about the thinking process, selfawareness, understanding and memory techniques, and learning characteristics as noted (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundSulistyawati, E. E., & Mbato, C. L. (2022) · Journal on English as a Foreign Language · doi:10.23971/jefl.v12i1.3114 · Cited by 3
“Those findings were supported by Flavell’s (1979) theory that metacognitive strategies promote individuals to develop self-efficacy levels, overcome learning issues, and achieve future goals. In addition, Teng (2020) reveals that implementing metacognitive strategies during reading guides students to plan, monitor, ev…”
BackgroundResultINVESTIGATING EFL HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS' METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS IN WRITING
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“Metacognitive knowledge is related to a person’s knowledge regarding his/her cognitive process (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluentialUna estructura neurodidáctica para el desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas en los adolescentes
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“Declarative knowledge Knowledge about one’s own understandings, skills, and wis-doms The description of each subcomponent of the theoretical framework of metacognition being”
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“Metacognition refers to any knowledge and cognitive process, and metacognitive experiences include any con - scious cognitive and affective experiences (Flavell, 1979 ).”
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Students' metacognition in solving non-routine problems
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“This definition is also found in research work done by Flavell (1979), Wellman (1985), Brown (1987), Jacobs and Paris (1987), Schraw (1994), Livingston (1997), Dunlosky and Hertzog (2000), Georghiades (2004).”
ResultMetacognitive features and cognitive distortions of the patients with major depression
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“Metacognition, which is defined as the individual's awareness and evaluation of his/her cognitive processes and strategies, was first introduced by Flavell in the 1970s (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundInfluence of automation mode use on selection rates and subjective assessment over time
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“It seems that participants used previous knowledge and experiences (Flavell 1979; Hoff and Bashir 2015) of automation to choose amongst the different task completion options available.”
BackgroundBrechet, C., Blanc, N., Mortier, A., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.951784 · Cited by 3
“Metacognitive knowledge corresponds to knowledge that a person has of their own cognitive processes and the factors that influence them (Flavell, 1979).”
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“The concept of metacognition was first defined as any information or cognitive process involved in the assessment, monitoring, or control of cognition by Flavell (1979).”
Self-Regulated Learning Instructions in Engineering Education: A Systematic Scoping Review
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“Specifically, metacognition refers to one’s thinking about thinking [25].”
BackgroundSeiradakis, E. V. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies on Education & Research (ICALTER) · doi:10.1109/icalter57193.2022.9964676 · Cited by 3
“Metacognitive-genre awareness is a construct created by Negretti and Kuteeva which essentially combines ESP school genre theory[14]-[15] with metacognition [16].”
BackgroundValdiviezo, G. T., Rodríguez-Alegre, L. R., Pacheco, H. D. R. R., et al. (2022) · Revista Venezolana de Gerencia · doi:10.52080/rvgluz.27.8.45 · Cited by 3
Blended learning environments to foster self-directed learning
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“The theoretical underpinning of the MCQ-30 scale was not in alignment with the definition of metacognition presented by Flavell (1979), and did not focus on activities directed toward a task.”
BackgroundMethodA Classification of Methods and Constructs in Design Cognition Research
Lawrie, E., Hay, L., & Wodehouse, A. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20418-0_7 · Cited by 3
Hong, S. B., & Han, J. (2023) · Early Years Journal of International Research and Development · doi:10.1080/09575146.2023.2179960 · Cited by 3
“Metacognition refers to knowledge and awareness of one’s own cognitive processes and regulation of these processes (Brown 1987; Flavell 1979; Schraw 2001).”
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Impact of metacognition on attitudes toward epilepsy in medical students
Tu, J., Sun, Y., Tian, D., Chen, X., Shi, S., Xiao, Z., Zhang, S., Wang, N., Hui, Y., & Gao, F. (2023) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2023.109243 · Cited by 3
The Development and Validation of a Metacognitive Questionnaire for Music Learning
Li, W., Manoharan, P., Liu, F., & Cui, X. (2023) · TEM Journal · doi:10.18421/tem122-55 · Cited by 4
Analysis of Metacognitive Awareness, Learning Methods, and Learning Outcomes in Biology of Student
Rahmadhni, D. I., & Chatri, M. (2023) · Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA · doi:10.29303/jppipa.v9i5.3533 · Cited by 3
Combating Myside Bias in Scientific Thinking: A Special Challenge for the Gifted
Sternberg, R. J., Ghahremani, M., & Ehsan, H. (2023) · Roeper Review · doi:10.1080/02783193.2023.2212361 · Cited by 4
“Metacognitive theorists (e.g., Flavell, 1979) have discussed the importance of one’s understanding and control over one’s own thinking.”
BackgroundA Community Science Model for Inter-disciplinary Evolution Education and School Improvement
Eirdosh, D., & Hanisch, S. (2023) · Synthese Library/Synthese library · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33358-3_7 · Cited by 4
Степанівна, С. О., Едуардівна, Л. Ю., Lukianenko, V., Ogienko, O., Lytovchenko, I., Stavytska, I., Halatsyn, K., & Вадаська, С. В. (2023) · BRAIN BROAD RESEARCH IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE · doi:10.18662/brain/14.2/448 · Cited by 6
“The te rm “metacognition” was coined by Flavell (1979) who understood it as “cognition about cognitive phenomena,” or in other words “thinking about thinking” (p. 906).”
BackgroundEvaluating false positive rates of standard and hierarchical measures of metacognitive accuracy
Rausch, M., & Zehetleitner, M. (2023) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-023-09353-y · Cited by 9
“Metacognition is traditionally defined as knowledge or cognition about cognitive phenomena (Flavell, 1979).”
BackgroundŞahin, E., & Yalçın, N. (2023) · Fen Bilimleri Öğretimi Dergisi · doi:10.56423/fbod.1341269 · Cited by 3
Yuan, Y., Harun, J., & Wang, Z. (2023) · International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.4018/ijcallt.332404 · Cited by 3
“First, the 10-week learning materials (seen in Figure 4) are uploaded to the learning platform, Chaoxing App, and the contents are designed into three sections according to the three strategies of metacognition, planning, and monitoring and evaluation (Flavell, 1979).”
MethodA corpus-based study of metadiscourse features in Chinese-English simultaneous interpreting
Ren, W., & Wang, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1269669 · Cited by 3
“…self-reflective expressions used to negotiate interactional meanings in a text (Hyland, 2019, p. 43), while metacognition refers to the ability to consciously regulate, monitor, and harmonize cognitive functions, representing knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena (Flavell, 1976, 1979).”
BackgroundShuqin, N., & Kamarudin, D. (2023) · International Journal of Education & Technology · doi:10.59021/ijetech.v1i3.39 · Cited by 3
“Third, although a number of scholars (e.g., Pintrich, 2002; Hacker, 1998; Flavell, 1979) have concurred on the motivational and affective components of meta-cognitive knowledge, more research is still needed in areas like self-knowledge, engagement, interest, and motivational beliefs.”
BackgroundÖzgür, S. D. (2023) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-023-00760-y · Cited by 3
“Metacognition is the awareness of an individual’s cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979) and enables learners to understand and monitor their cognitive processes (Wengrowicz et al., 2018).”
Montemagni, C., Brasso, C., Bellino, S., Bozzatello, P., Villari, V., & Rocca, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1278113 · Cited by 4
Metawriting: Empowering students to discover their knowledge of writing
Mejia, M. (2023) · Journal of Pedagogical Research · doi:10.33902/jpr.202423833 · Cited by 10
Metacognition, Accountability and Legal Personhood of AI
Ribeiro, B. A., Coelho, H., Ferreira, A. E., & Branquinho, J. (2023) · Law, governance and technology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41264-6_9 · Cited by 5
Rahman, N. F. A., & Baharudin, H. (2023) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v13-i12/20197 · Cited by 4
Silva, L., Gomes, A., & Mendes, A. J. (2023) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie58773.2023.10343321 · Cited by 3
“Metacognition refers to one’s ability to monitor and reflect on their learning process [24].”
BackgroundGregg, A., & O'Connor, J. A. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--40982 · Cited by 3
The Crealectic Method: From Creativity to Compossibility
de Miranda, L. (2024) · Qualitative Inquiry · doi:10.1177/10778004241229065 · Cited by 3
“Understanding is about metacognition: it refers to the ability to think about one’s own thinking processes (Flavell, 1979).”
Weinberger, Y. (2024) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2024.104533 · Cited by 4
Measuring secondary school students’ L2 writing self‐regulated strategies in the Korean EFL context
Woo, E., & Kim, D. (2024) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12551 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Flavell, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flavell, John H.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1979-10
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 906-911
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2093950336
- Cited by
- 11,282
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1118 · 2025: 902 · 2024: 768 · 2023: 751 · 2022: 680 · 2021: 687 · 2020: 666 · 2019: 603 · 2018: 518 · 2017: 449 · 2016: 415 · 2015: 410 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 363 · 2012: 336
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- metacognition, cognitive monitoring, cognitive development, self-monitoring, metacognitive awareness
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