The DOI matches its Crossref record; 68 of the 72 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Should We Trust Web-Based Studies? A Comparative Analysis of Six Preconceptions About Internet Questionnaires.
Abstract
The rapid growth of the Internet provides a wealth of new research opportunities for psychologists. Internet data collection methods, with a focus on self-report questionnaires from self-selected samples, are evaluated and compared with traditional paper-and-pencil methods. Six preconceptions about Internet samples and data quality are evaluated by comparing a new large Internet sample (N = 361,703) with a set of 510 published traditional samples. Internet samples are shown to be relatively diverse with respect to gender, socioeconomic status, geographic region, and age. Moreover, Internet findings generalize across presentation formats, are not adversely affected by nonserious or repeat responders, and are consistent with findings from traditional methods. It is concluded that Internet methods can contribute to many areas of psychology.
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“The proportion of females (62%) to males in this study was more representative than in traditional survey methods, where women often comprise 71% to 77% of the participants [39]”
From Effects of Mock Facebook Workday Comments on Public Perception of Professional Credibility: A Field Study in Canada (2019) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Self-presentation is an unlikely confound in Study 1 because the motivation to self-present is absent when participants feel anonymous (Paulhus, 1984(Paulhus, , 1991) ) as they do in anonymous online studies such as the present one, where they don't provide identifying information (Gosling et al., 2004).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Gosling et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“As described in the Appendix, the reliability and validity of internet data collection has become increasingly clear in recent years.”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Gosling et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“The validity of internet testing has been well supported in recent reviews (Gosling et al., 2004), with excellent correspondence between results obtained with internet samples are results obtained in the laboratory (e.g., Birnbaum, 1999;Krantz & Dalal, 2000;McGraw, Tew, & Williams, 2000;Reips, 2002).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Gosling et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, previous research has suggested populations for online studies and Facebook are quite representative [23], [24].”
From Personality, Gender, and Age in the Language of Social Media: The Open-Vocabulary Approach (2013) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“Still, the sample sizes and availability of demographic information afforded by social media bring us closer to a more ideal representative sample [99].”
From Personality, Gender, and Age in the Language of Social Media: The Open-Vocabulary Approach (2013) · cites this paper as [99]
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“21 However, Gosling et al 28 have argued that data collection via the Internet yields outcomes that are equivalent to traditional pencil-and-paper methods.”
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MethodA robust data-driven approach identifies four personality types across four large data sets
Gerlach, M., Farb, B., Revelle, W., & Amaral, L. A. N. (2018) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0419-z · Cited by 220
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“Such demographic biases do tend to characterize Internet studies (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004); however, these same biases apply just as strongly to samples in many other psychology studies (Gosling et al., 2004), and to other large-scale studies of respondents in same-sex relationships (e.”
BackgroundResultAndreeva, V. A., Salanave, B., Castetbon, K., Deschamps, V., Vernay, M., Kesse‐Guyot, E., & Herçberg, S. (2015) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2014-205263 · Cited by 202
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BackgroundKhazaal, Y., van Singer, M., Chatton, A., Achab, S., Zullino, D., Rothen, S., Khan, R., Billieux, J., & Thorens, G. (2014) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.2759 · Cited by 201
“Some studies suggest that the quality of the data provided by Internet-based surveys is at least as good as in those collected by traditional paper-and-pencil methods on self-selected samples [6-8].”
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Henderson, A. W., Lehavot, K., & Simoni, J. M. (2008) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9384-3 · Cited by 228
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“First, while Internet-based recruiting may be practical given the relative scarcity of atheists in the general population and their possible reticence to disclose their atheist identity, and that online studies yield results that are similar or better in terms of measures’ psychometric properties (Birnbaum, 2004; Gosl…”
ResultHolmberg, D., & Blair, K. L. (2009) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224490802645294 · Cited by 198
“Such demographics do characterize other Internet research samples (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004), but are by no means limited to them, as traditional samples are often equally biased (Gosling et al., 2004).”
BackgroundOnline webcam-based eye tracking in cognitive science: A first look
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Very Happy Youths: Benefits of Very High Life Satisfaction Among Adolescents
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“Research conducted by Gosling et al. (2004) compared questionnaire data collected via the Internet versus traditional paper-and-pencil methods.”
BackgroundResultNettle, D. (2006) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712606x117612 · Cited by 207
Lorenz, T., Frischling, C., Cuadros, R., & Heinitz, K. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147040 · Cited by 226
“According to Gosling, Vazire [89], however, the online recruitment should only be of marginal effect to the results.”
BackgroundFrederick, D. A., & Essayli, J. H. (2016) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/men0000031 · Cited by 218
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“Graham (2011) and Becchetti and Rossetti (2009) argued from an economic perspective that although achievement orientation can increase salary, it can be detrimental to SWB as it creates rising expectations also referred to as the “happy peasant and frustrated achiever” problem.”
BackgroundA convenient solution: Using MTurk to sample from hard-to-reach populations
Smith, N. A., Sabat, I. E., Martinez, L. R., Weaver, K., & Xu, S. (2015) · Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1017/iop.2015.29 · Cited by 190
“…when using data collected from MTurk, such as incorporating manipulation checks, establishing thresholds formissing data, ensuring that there is enough variability in responses, deleting responses with identical IP addresses, and matching key demographic characteristics (Gosling et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFamily Informants’ Perceptions of Insight in Compulsive Hoarding
Tolin, D. F., Fitch, K. E., Frost, R. O., & Steketee, G. S. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9217-7 · Cited by 201
“…used for mental health research (Skitka and Sargis 2006), and several studies indicate that web-based data collection results in greater sample diversity, generalizes across presentation formats, and yields findings consistent with data collected using more traditional means (Gosling et al. 2004).”
BackgroundIs multilingualism linked to a higher tolerance of ambiguity?
Dewaele, J., & Wei, L. (2012) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728912000570 · Cited by 192
“Gosling et al. (2004) also found no significant differences in scores of personality dimensions between the two groups, nor in patterns of socialising. Denissen, Neumann and van Zalk (2010) have reported that the psychometric properties of questionnaire measures are comparable in paper-and-pen and online versions. Wil…”
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Reactions to racial discrimination: Emotional stress and help-seeking behaviors.
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Echoes of Silence: Employee Silence as a Mediator Between Overall Justice and Employee Outcomes
Whiteside, D. B., & Barclay, L. J. (2012) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1467-3 · Cited by 202
“Online data collection has been found to produce similar quality data as compared to traditional paper and pencil collection but it provides access to more diverse and representative samples that are less bounded by geography, demographics, industry, or occupation (e.g., Gosling et al. 2004).”
BackgroundReported effects of masculine ideals on gay men.
Sánchez, F. J., Greenberg, S. T., Liu, W. M., & Vilain, E. J. N. (2009) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/a0013513 · Cited by 189
Authentic self-expression on social media is associated with greater subjective well-being
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“Nowadays, by means of the Internet, researchers can cost-effectively reach a large and diverse pool of participants (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004).”
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“There is also growing evidence that online data collection can be accurate, reliable, valid and representative (Meyerson and Tryon, 2003; Gosling et al., 2004; Chang and Krosnick, 2009).”
BackgroundLuszczynska, A., Tryburcy, M., & Schwarzer, R. (2006) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyl133 · Cited by 231
“Although reliability of data collection in the Internet might be questionable, studies that address effects of data collection modes showed that employment of an on-line questionnaire and an interview resulted in the same frequencies of health behaviors [27].”
BackgroundFunctions of reminiscence and mental health in later life
Cappeliez, P., O’Rourke, N., & Chaudhury, H. (2005) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607860500131427 · Cited by 178
“Findings from Internet-based studies are believed to generalize across presentation formats (Gosling et al., 2004).”
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“The method is efficient and provides access to wide samples of targeted individuals in terms of geographic location (Gosling et al. 2004).”
MethodEmpirical Validation of a Model of Reminiscence and Health in Later Life
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“General health questionnaire.—The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ; Goldberg, 1978 ) is a self-report measure of nonpsychotic mental illness developed for use in community settings.”
BackgroundPsychological profiles of professional actors
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The personality of popular facebook users
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BackgroundResultEffects of right-wing authoritarianism and threat from terrorism on restriction of civil liberties
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“Several studies have shown that results obtained using online data collection techniques are typically consistent with those obtained through traditional methods (Gosling et al. 2004).”
ResultProblem gambling on the internet: implications for internet gambling policy in North America
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“In particular, Gosling et al. (2004) concludes that: 1) Internet samples tend to be more diverse than traditional samples, in many domains; 2) Web based questionnaires do not have a greater propensity to generate frivolous responses; 3) Steps can be easily taken by Internet researchers to eliminate…”
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Bücker, J. J. L. E., Furrer, O., Poutsma, E., & Buyens, D. (2014) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2013.870293 · Cited by 170
“We do not expect online surveying to lead to less reliable outcomes (Gosling 2004) than paper-and-pencil surveys.”
BackgroundDavid, E. J., & Okazaki, S. (2006) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.53.2.241 · Cited by 149
“1 Hunsley and Meyer (2003) argued that a hierarchical regression such as the one we conducted is one way to demonstrate a measure’s incremental validity and/or clinical utility.”
BackgroundLinking corporate social responsibility and organizational performance in the construction industry
Loosemore, M., & Lim, B. T. (2016) · Construction Management and Economics · doi:10.1080/01446193.2016.1242762 · Cited by 178
Asmundson, G. J. G., & Stapleton, J. A. (2008) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506070801969005 · Cited by 167
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“This study was conducted with an Internet sampling methodology, which often provides comparatively robust results; web-based surveys like this provide findings consistent with traditional methodologies (Gosling et al., 2004).”
Franklin, M. E., Flessner, C. A., Woods, D. W., Keuthen, N. J., Piacentini, J. C., Moore, P. S., Stein, D. J., Cohen, S. B., & Wilson, M. A. (2008) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e31818d4328 · Cited by 167
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“while some have found online surveys match responses from general populations (gosling et al. 2004), others suggest it depends on the questions: Asking mechanical turkers who they would vote for in an election predicts a democratic landslide; mechanical turkers are far more liberal than randomly selected Americans (Be…”
BackgroundThe Pleasure Evoked by Sad Music Is Mediated by Feelings of Being Moved
Vuoskoski, J. K., & Eerola, T. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00439 · Cited by 186
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SoftGIS as a Bridge-Builder in Collaborative Urban Planning
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“The ‘new wave’ of humanistic geography and social scientific studies aims at a better understanding of the relationship between the material and the social ( Gieryn 2000; Latour 2002; Thrift 1996).”
BackgroundExtending the study of gelotophobia: On gelotophiles and katagelasticists
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“Gosling et al. (2004) showed that Internet-based studies are usually equally reliable and valid as paper-pencil based methods (more traditional strategies) and that samples collected via the Internet are usually more diverse than other samples.”
BackgroundKarlin, B., Davis, N. C., Sanguinetti, A., Gamble, K., Kirkby, D. P., & Stokols, D. (2012) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916512467532 · Cited by 165
“As discussed in the “Method” section, online sampling is still a relatively new method, though studies have found diversity and findings to be consistent with more traditional samples (Gosling et al., 2004; Kaplowitz et al., 2004; Smith, 1997).”
BackgroundResultThe Impact of Tourette Syndrome in Adults: Results from the Tourette Syndrome Impact Survey
Conelea, C. A., Woods, D. W., Zinner, S., Budman, C., Murphy, T., Scahill, L., Compton, S., & Walkup, J. (2013) · Community mental health journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-011-9465-y · Cited by 143
“Although data collected via the Internet could be of questionable validity, research comparing data collected in person versus over the Internet has demonstrated that results are similar across administration formats, are consistent with results from studies using traditional methodology, and are not adversely impacte…”
ResultOnline psychophysics: reaction time effects in cognitive experiments
Semmelmann, K., & Weigelt, S. (2016) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-016-0783-4 · Cited by 180
“Germine et al. interpret these results as showing that data quality in online conducted samples is not of a lower quality – which still is a common preconception against online studies (Gosling et al., 2000).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialShatz, I. (2016) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439316650163 · Cited by 163
“…and experimental design, and do not prevent Reddit in particular and online sources overall from beingvalid for research purposes (Birnbaum, 2004; Couper, 2008; Evans & Mathur, 2005; Eysenbach, 2004; Gosling et al., 2000; Miller & Dickson, 2001; Pedersen & Nielsen, 2016; Wilson & Dewaele, 2010).”
BackgroundWhen the cat’s away, some mice will play: A basic trait account of dishonest behavior
Hilbig, B. E., & Zettler, I. (2015) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2015.04.003 · Cited by 179
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“Furthermore, research has found that Internet samples produce results that are similar to university-based or community-based samples on variables such as personality and psychological adjustment [60, 61].”
BackgroundTo Live Among Like-Minded Others
Bleidorn, W., Schönbrodt, F. D., Gebauer, J. E., Rentfrow, P. J., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2016) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615627133 · Cited by 169
“Although Internet-based samples are more diverse and representative than are the convenience samples commonly used in social-science research (Gosling et al., 2004), the representativeness of the samples might have varied across the cities we examined.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKahn, J. H., Schneider, K. T., Jenkins, T. M., & Moyle, L. L. (2006) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.397 · Cited by 161
The Effects of Religiosity on Ethical Judgments
Walker, A. G., Smither, J. W., & DeBode, J. D. (2011) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-011-1009-4 · Cited by 165
Proyer, R. T. (2013) · European Journal of Humour Research · doi:10.7592/ejhr2013.1.1.proyer · Cited by 166
“However, there is empirical evidence that data collected via the Internet is comparable to data collected in more conventional ways (e.g., Gosling et al. 2004).”
Glenn, A. L., Koleva, S. P., Iyer, R., Graham, J., & Ditto, P. H. (2010) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500001662 · Cited by 164
Does Exposure to Cigarette Health Warnings Elicit Psychological Reactance in Smokers?
Erceg‐Hurn, D. M., & Steed, L. G. (2011) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00710.x · Cited by 170
The Ethics of Internet Research
Eynon, R., Fry, J., & Schroeder, R. (2008) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9780857020055.n2 · Cited by 160
Formats for Improving Risk Communication in Medical Tradeoff Decisions
Waters, E. A., Weinstein, N. D., Colditz, G. A., & Emmons, K. M. (2006) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730500526695 · Cited by 159
“Internet-based samples are also more diverse than traditional laboratory studies that recruit university undergraduates as participants (Gosling et al., 2004; Reips, 2000).”
BackgroundInfurna, F. J., & Luthar, S. S. (2018) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2018.07.003 · Cited by 177
Development and validation of the Delaying Gratification Inventory.
Hoerger, M. P., Quirk, S. W., & Weed, N. C. (2011) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0023286 · Cited by 172
Chen, X., Huang, Q., Davison, R. M., & Hua, Z. (2015) · International Journal of Electronic Commerce · doi:10.1080/10864415.2016.1087828 · Cited by 156
“[28] argue that the data quality provided by a self-selected sample is the same as that offered by traditional methods.”
ResultPsychometric analysis of the Empathy Quotient (EQ)
Allison, C., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Stone, M., & Muncer, S. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.005 · Cited by 168
The latent structure of obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a taxometric study
Olatunji, B. O., Williams, B. J., Haslam, N., Abramowitz, J. S., & Tolin, D. F. (2007) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20387 · Cited by 165
“Internet survey methods, which are receiving increased use in psychological research, show comparable levels of performance when compared to paper and pencil methodology [e.g., Gosling et al., 2004]; this comparability has been specifically shown with measures of OCD [Coles et al., 2007].”
MethodThe Development and Psychometric Properties of the Selective Mutism Questionnaire
Bergman, R. L., Keller, M. L., Piacentini, J. C., & Bergman, A. J. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410801955805 · Cited by 154
“Although it was not possible to verify the SM diagnoses of the Internet group, recent research has shown that clinical samples obtained via the Internet can be similar to those obtained from those using traditional clinic-based methods (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & Oliver, 2004 ; Woods et al, 2006 ).”
Sánchez, F. J., & Vilain, E. J. N. (2012) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9912-z · Cited by 153
“Participants We used the suggestions offered byGosling, Vazire, Srivastava, and John (2004) in constructing and monitoring the online survey (e.g., monitoring IP addresses to guard against repeat responders).”
MethodBoer, D., & Fischer, R. D. (2011) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735610381885 · Cited by 148
The Rise and Fall of Depressive Symptoms and Academic Stress in Two Samples of University Students
Barker, E. T., Howard, A. L., Villemaire-Krajden, R., & Galambos, N. L. (2018) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-018-0822-9 · Cited by 150
Cohrs, J. C., Maes, J., Moschner, B., & Kielmann, S. (2007) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2007.00581.x · Cited by 153
Sex differences and sex similarities in disgust sensitivity
Tybur, J. M., Bryan, A. D., Lieberman, D., Hooper, A. E. C., & Merriman, L. A. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.003 · Cited by 149
Mapping of Crowdsourcing in Health: Systematic Review
Créquit, P., Mansouri, G., Benchoufi, M., Vivot, A., & Ravaud, P. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.9330 · Cited by 135
“Some studies have assessed whether we should trust Web-based studies, and it appears that the data provided by internet methods have at least as good quality as those provided by traditional paper-and-pencil methods [233].”
BackgroundGrov, C., Gillespie, B. J., Royce, T., & Lever, J. (2010) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9598-z · Cited by 147
“Finally, in an effort to better understand and interpret quantitative findings, the 1,104 qualitative responses were systematically analyzed for coherent themes using the principals of grounded theory and the ‘‘constant comparative method’’ ( Glaser & Strauss, 1967 ).”
MethodDoes survey format influence self-disclosure on sensitive question items?
Kays, K. M., Gathercoal, K. A., & Buhrow, W. C. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.09.007 · Cited by 147
“Although recent studies (Gosling et al., 2004; Luce et al., 2007; Naus et al., 2009; Suris et al., 2007) suggest it is possible to compare different modalities of survey data exploring non-sensitive subject matter, our research combined with other studies (Naus et al.”
BackgroundResultOnline versus in-person interviews with adolescents: An exploration of data equivalence
Shapka, J. D., Domene, J. F., Khan, S., & Yang, L. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.016 · Cited by 147
Work-home boundary management using communication and information technology.
Park, Y., & Jex, S. M. (2011) · International Journal of Stress Management · doi:10.1037/a0022759 · Cited by 146
Barclay, L. J., & Kiefer, T. (2012) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206312441833 · Cited by 155
“Moreover, there are numerous advantages to the use of Internet data collection, including (a) obtaining more diverse samples than typical college samples and (b) allowing scale items to be randomized, which can minimize order effects as well as common method bias concerns (e.g., Fraley, 2007; Gosling et al., 2004).”
BackgroundAyanian, A. H., & Tausch, N. (2016) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12164 · Cited by 147
Durso, L. E., Latner, J., & Hayashi, K. (2012) · Obesity Facts · doi:10.1159/000345931 · Cited by 150
Sexual minority stress and changes in relationship quality in same-sex couples
Mohr, J. J., & Daly, C. A. (2008) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407508100311 · Cited by 163
“…raised regarding the validity and generalizability of data provided by Internet samples, evidence suggests that Internet-based studies focused on self-report data are generally as strong as comparable studies conducted with traditional sampling and data collection approaches (Gosling et al., 2004).”
Result
Metadata
- Authors
- Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2004
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 93-104
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W1992490637
- Cited by
- 2,932
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 123 · 2021: 135 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 148 · 2017: 170 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 192 · 2014: 218 · 2013: 184 · 2012: 189
- FWCI
- 261.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Mobile Crowdsensing and Crowdsourcing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Focus Groups and Qualitative Methods
- Keywords
- online data collection, paper-and-pencil questionnaires, sample representativeness, data quality, response format effects, generalizability, self-report questionnaire
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychology, Surveys and Questionnaires, Evidence-Based Medicine, Internet
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