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Cited by 85Personality Traits and PsychologyCultural Differences and ValuesDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem.

Open access
Gebauer, Jochen E., Sedikides, Constantine, Wagner, Jenny, Bleidorn, Wiebke, Rentfrow, Peter J., Potter, Jeff, Gosling, Samuel D.·2015·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
DOI 10.1037/pspp0000052
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Abstract

What is the function of self-esteem? We classified relevant theoretical work into 3 perspectives. The cultural norm-fulfillment perspective regards self-esteem a result of adherence to cultural norms. The interpersonal-belonging perspective regards self-esteem as a sociometer of interpersonal belonging. The getting-ahead perspective regards self-esteem as a sociometer of getting ahead in the social world, while regarding low anxiety/neuroticism as a sociometer of getting along with others. The 3 perspectives make contrasting predictions on the relation between the Big Five personality traits and self-esteem across cultures. We tested these predictions in a self-report study (2,718,838 participants from 106 countries) and an informant-report study (837,655 informants from 64 countries). We obtained some evidence for cultural norm fulfillment, but the effect size was small. Hence, this perspective does not satisfactorily account for self-esteem's function. We found a strong relation between Extraversion and higher self-esteem, but no such relation between Agreeableness and self-esteem. These 2 traits are pillars of interpersonal belonging. Hence, the results do not fit the interpersonal-belonging perspective either. However, the results closely fit the getting-ahead perspective. The relation between Extraversion and higher self-esteem is consistent with this perspective, because Extraversion is the Big Five driver for getting ahead in the social world. The relation between Agreeableness and lower neuroticism is also consistent with this perspective, because Agreeableness is the Big Five driver for getting along with others.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper competitively tests three accounts of self-esteem’s function using very large cross-cultural self- and informant-report datasets. It finds the getting-ahead account fits best: Extraversion tracks higher self-esteem, Agreeableness tracks lower Neuroticism, and cultural norm-fulfillment effects are only modest.

Key findings

  • In self-report Study 1 (2,718,838 participants, 106 countries) and informant-report Study 2 (837,655 informants, 64 countries per the abstract; 826,980 from 65 countries per the method/general discussion), Extraversion was the strongest Big Five predictor of self-esteem, while Agreeableness was weakly negatively related or unrelated.
  • A double dissociation emerged: Agreeableness uniquely predicted lower Neuroticism, whereas Extraversion did not; Extraversion uniquely predicted higher self-esteem, whereas Agreeableness did not.
  • Cultural norm fulfillment received some support, but the effect size was small; cross-level interactions were modest and did not make norm fulfillment the main basis of self-esteem.
  • The overall pattern favored the getting-ahead perspective: self-esteem as a sociometer for social dominance/getting ahead, and anxiety/Neuroticism as a sociometer for affiliation/getting along.

Methods

  • Two Internet samples from the Gosling-Potter project: Study 1 used self-reports; Study 2 used informant-reports on close acquaintances. Big Five traits were measured with the BFI, and self-esteem with a single-item scale.
  • Main analyses were multilevel random-slope models including all Big Five traits at individual and country levels, with country-mean and grand-mean centering and z-standardized variables; supplementary separate-trait models and extreme-group quartile comparisons were also reported.
  • Study 1 collected data from December 1998 to December 2009; Study 2 from March 2001 to December 2009. Study 2 also ran conservative models controlling informants’ own self-reported Big Five and self-esteem.

Limitations

  • The authors state that self-esteem was assessed with a single item, that the design is correlational and cannot establish causality, and that the focus is trait-level while sociometer theory originally concerned state self-esteem; they call for future causal tests and more direct measures of dominance/affiliation.
  • Evident from the text: sample sizes and country counts differ across the abstract, method, and general discussion (e.g., informant sample reported as 837,655 from 64 countries versus 826,980 from 65 countries).
  • Evident from the text: country-level Big Five indices may represent subcultures rather than whole countries, and the informant models controlling self-reports partial out valid variance, making those tests conservative.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/pspp0000052

Cites

250 of 250 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

6 of 121 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingown data

    The relation between Extraversion and self-esteem strengthened with increasing country-level Extraversion.

    “In support of cultural norm-fulfillment, the relation between E and self-esteem (hereafter, E-esteem relation) strengthened with increasing country-level E and, likewise, the C-esteem relation strengthened with increasing countrylevel C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In Study 1 there was a unique and universal relation between A and lower N.

    “The most important finding was a unique and universal relation between E and self-esteem, coupled with a unique and universal relation between A and lower N.”
    • Also stated in: § Concluding Remarks · plain
      “At the same time, A was a unique predictor of lower N across all cultures, whereas E was not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Conscientiousness was the next strongest negative predictor of Neuroticism after Agreeableness.

    “More important, however, A now emerged as the strongest (negative) predictor of N, followed by C, E, and O which was weakly but positively related to N.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Again, there was a sizable negative relation between self-esteem and Neuroticism.

    “Again, we found a sizable (negative) relation between self-esteem and N.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In Study 1 no relation emerged between A and self-esteem.

    “No such relations emerged between A and self-esteem or between E and lower N.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 57
  • May combine two claims. 51
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is strong consensus that T. Leary's two interpersonal motives are the pillars of interpersonal belonging.

    “There is strong consensus that T. Leary's (1957) two interpersonal motives are the pillars of interpersonal belonging (Hogan 1983;Paulhus & John, 1998;Sedikides & Skowronski, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hogan 1983

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Paulhus & John, 1998 source
    • cites Sedikides & Skowronski, 1997 source

      The Social Pressures Perspective (pp. 11–12, 15) discusses cooperation, group membership, and status, but does not identify T. Leary’s two interpersonal motives or describe them as pillars of belonging. Searches for Leary (1957), the two motives, and consensus found no passage addressing that claim; the References (p. 20) list M. R. Leary, not T. Leary (1957). (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Becker et al.'s participants reported that their self-esteem was strongly based on culturally normative sources, and this finding replicated longitudinally.

    “Participants reported that their self-esteem was strongly based on sources that were culturally normative, and this finding also replicated longitudinally.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Becker et al. (2014) source

      The Discussion reports that bases for self-evaluation varied with normative cultural values and that the results were also found longitudinally, with one exception. The Longitudinal Models section specifies that the predicted cultural moderation for achieving social status was supported only cross-sectionally. Thus, the longitudinal replication was substantial but not complete. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    N and self-esteem are moderately correlated.

    “Not surprisingly, then, N and self-esteem are moderately correlated (Judge et al., 2002;Sedikides, Rudich, Gregg, Kumashiro, & Rusbult, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Judge et al., 2002 source
    • cites Sedikides, Rudich, Gregg, Kumashiro, & Rusbult, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    N and self-esteem possess similar genetic underpinnings and share evolutionary histories.

    “N and self-esteem also possess similar genetic underpinnings (Neiss, Stevenson, Legrand, Iacono, & Sedikides, 2009) and they share evolutionary histories (Sedikides & Skowronski, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Neiss, Stevenson, Legrand, Iacono, & Sedikides, 2009 source
    • cites Sedikides & Skowronski, 1997 source

      The discussion of ecological and social pressures (p. 15) proposes that self-esteem evolved as a facet of the symbolic self. It does not establish that N and self-esteem share an evolutionary history. The genetic-underpinnings clause is attributed to a different citation, so it is not assessed here. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Traits can be understood as the average of states over time or as the result of repeated state experiences.

    “Moreover, traits can be understood as the average of states over time (Fleeson, 2001) or as the result of repeated state experiences (Roberts & Jackson, 2008)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Fleeson, 2001
    • cites Roberts & Jackson, 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Study 1 found some evidence for cultural norm-fulfillment on self-esteem but not on N.

    “The support for the double-dissociation hypothesis notwithstanding, we also found some evidence for cultural norm-fulfillment on self-esteem (but not on N).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A parallel cross-level effect emerged for Neuroticism, although this interaction did not reach significance.

    “A parallel effect emerged for N, although this cross-level interaction did not reach significance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The results supported cultural norm-fulfillment for Agreeableness, but opposed it for Conscientiousness, Openness, and self-esteem.

    “More precisely, the results supported this perspective for A, but they opposed it for C, O, and self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Norm-fulfillment effects on self-esteem are direct and strong, whereas relevant effects on other emotional dispositions, such as anxiety/Neuroticism, are indirect and weak.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingown data

    Over and above Neuroticism, Openness was the next strongest predictor of self-esteem after Conscientiousness.

    “Over and above N, however, E emerged as the strongest predictor of self-esteem, followed by C, then O, and A which was weakly but negatively related to self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingown data

    Extraversion was the next predictor of Neuroticism after Conscientiousness.

    “More important, however, A now emerged as the strongest (negative) predictor of N, followed by C, E, and O which was weakly but positively related to N.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table S1 shows that cross-level interactions were significant for Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Openness, and marginally significant for Agreeableness.

    “Table S1 shows that cross-level interactions were significant for E, C, O, and marginally significant for A.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Agreeableness-esteem and Openness-esteem relations were not moderated by country-level Agreeableness and Openness, respectively.

    “Finally, the A-esteem and O-esteem relations were not moderated by countrylevel A and O, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Inspection of independent relations indicates clear differences across cultures, but these differences are modest in size.

    “Inspection of those independent relations indicates that there are clear differences across cultures, but these differences are modest in size (see Table S2 for corresponding zero-order correlations within each country).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There was no evidence for A as a basis of self-esteem, but A was consistently related to lower N.

    “We found no evidence for A as a basis of self-esteem, but A was consistently related to lower N.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    E was related to higher self-esteem, and this link replicated across countries with different average E-levels.

    “E was related to higher self-esteem, and this link replicated across countries with different average E-levels.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A emerged as the strongest negative Big Five predictor of N, followed by C, then E, and O which was weakly but positively related to N.

    “More important, however, A emerged as the strongest (negative) Big Five predictor, followed by C, than E, and O which was weakly but positively related to N.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Only E consistently emerged as a key predictor of self-esteem, whereas A consistently failed to predict self-esteem.

    “Yet, only E consistently emerged as a key predictor of self-esteem.In contrast, A consistently failed to predict self-esteem, although A is just as important for interpersonal belonging as is E.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The cross-level interaction involving self-esteem was significant but not in the direction predicted by the cultural norm-fulfillment perspective.

    “The cross-level interaction involving self-esteem was significant, but not in the direction predicted by this perspective.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Study 2 revealed informant-report evidence for cultural norm-fulfillment effects on self-esteem but not on N.

    “the present study also revealed informant-report evidence for cultural normfulfillment effects on self-esteem (but not on N).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Averaging the two external indices yielded external country-level information from ## of the 101 countries.

    “This yielded external country-level information from ## of our 101 countries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In a random intercept model analysis, significant cultural norm-fulfillment effects were found for Extraversion (b = .34, SE = .13, t = 2.64, p = .008), Agreeableness (b = .15, SE = .07, t = 2.18, p = .03), and Conscientiousness (b = .16, SE = .03, t = 4.93, p < .001).

    “The results of this analysis revealed significant cultural norm-fulfillment effects for E (b = .34,SE = .13,t = 2.64, p = .008),A (b = .15,SE = .07,t = 2.18, p = .03),and C (b = .16,SE = .03,t = 4.93, p < .001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Excluding Asian countries did not yield stronger support for the cultural norm-fulfillment perspective, and the results were still consistent with the getting-ahead perspective.

    “The results did not yield stronger support for the cultural norm-fulfillment perspective, and were still consistent with the getting-ahead perspective.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The A-esteem relation was closest to zero with the RSES and significantly more negative with the SSES and even more negative with the SISES.

    “This relation was closest to zero when using the RSES, and it was significantly more negative when using the SSES, z = 3.41, p < .001.The relation was even more negative, when using the SISES, z = 4.57, p < .001.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingcitation

    In analyses including age, sex, and religiosity as additional moderators, the authors generally found evidence for very small norm-fulfillment effects, replicating past research.

    “Replicating past research, we generally found evidence for very small norm-fulfillment effects (Gebauer, Wagner et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gebauer, Wagner et al., 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    As in Study 1, the evidence for cultural norm-fulfillment weakened when Study 2's analyses used external country-level indices.

    “As in Study 1, the evidence for cultural norm-fulfillment weakened.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    The cultural norm-fulfillment perspective predicts that self-esteem functions as a motivator to adhere to cultural norms via endorsing culturally valued traits as personally important.

    “In effect, this perspective predicts that self-esteem ultimately functions as a motivator to adhere to cultural norms via the proximal process of endorsing culturally valued traits as personally important.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    The three perspectives make contrasting predictions regarding the cross-cultural relations between self-esteem and the Big Five personality traits.

    “As demonstrated below, however, the three perspectives make contrasting predictions regarding the cross-cultural relations between self-esteem and the Big Five personality traits of E(xtraversion), A(greeableness), N(euroticism), C(onscientiousness), and O(penness to Experience; John, Naumann, & Soto, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lack of association between Agreeableness and self-esteem poses a serious validity threat to the interpersonal-belonging perspective.

    “The lack of association between A and selfesteem poses a serious validity threat to the interpersonal-belonging perspective (cf.Wojciszke, Baryla, Parzuchowski, Szymkow, & Abele, 2011) because A is a particularly relevant interpersonal trait (M.R. Leary & Hoyle, 2009) and agreeable behavior is integral to interpersonal belonging (Graziano et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Wojciszke, Baryla, Parzuchowski, Szymkow, & Abele, 2011 source
    • cites M.R. Leary & Hoyle, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Graziano et al., 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Agency is more strongly linked to self-esteem than Communion is.

    “Furthermore, Agency (a close relative of E) is more strongly linked to self-esteem than is Communion (a close relative of A) (Gebauer, Wagner et al., 2013;Gecas & Seff, 1989;Wojciszke et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gebauer, Wagner et al., 2013 source
    • cites Gecas & Seff, 1989 source
    • cites Wojciszke et al., 2011 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extraversion and Agreeableness are both key predictors of interpersonal belonging.

    “As described earlier, E and A are both key predictors of interpersonal belonging (Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Once the relation between Agreeableness and Extraversion is controlled for, a small negative relation between Agreeableness and self-esteem emerges.

    “In fact, once the relation between A and E is controlled for, a small negative relation between A and self-esteem emerges (Robins, Tracy, Tresniewski, Potter, & Gosling, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robins, Tracy, Tresniewski, Potter, & Gosling, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Anderson et al. found that Extraversion was a strong and consistent predictor of social status across three studies, while Conscientiousness was consistently unrelated to social status.

    “E was a strong and consistent predictor of social status across their three studies.C, however, was consistently unrelated to social status.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Anderson et al. (2001) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Extraversion is strongly related to self-esteem.

    “E is strongly related to self-esteem (Kwan, Bond, & Singelis, 1997;Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001;Schmitt & Allik, 2005), but A is not (Graziano, Jensen-Campbell, & Finch, 1997;Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002;Kwan et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kwan, Bond, & Singelis, 1997 source
    • cites Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001 source
    • cites Schmitt & Allik, 2005 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is too early to conclude that cultural norm-fulfillment is the main basis for self-esteem because the pool of relevant studies was small, effect sizes were rarely reported, evidence was typically restricted to few Western cultures, and predictions of this perspective were not pitted against alternative explanations.

    “Yet, it is too early to conclude that cultural norm-fulfillment is the main basis for self-esteem: the pool of relevant studies was small, effect sizes were rarely reported, evidence was typically restricted to few Western cultures, and predictions of this perspective were not pitted against alternative explanations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Gebauer et al. suggested that Neuroticism may function as a sociometer for getting along.

    “Relatedly, Gebauer, Sedikides, Lüdtke, and Neberich (2014) suggested that N may function as a sociometer for getting along.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gebauer, Sedikides, Lüdtke, and Neberich (2014)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This pattern offers preliminary evidence that low Neuroticism is more strongly linked to Agreeableness than it is to Extraversion.

    “This pattern offers preliminary evidence that low N is more strongly linked to A than it is to E.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Twenge found practically identical changes over time for Neuroticism and anxiety, treating them interchangeably.

    “Similarly, in a cross-temporal meta-analysis of N and anxiety, Twenge (2000) found practically identical changes over time, treating N and anxiety interchangeably.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Twenge (2000) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Agreeableness is not related to self-esteem.

    “E is strongly related to self-esteem (Kwan, Bond, & Singelis, 1997;Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001;Schmitt & Allik, 2005), but A is not (Graziano, Jensen-Campbell, & Finch, 1997;Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002;Kwan et al., 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Graziano, Jensen-Campbell, & Finch, 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002 source
    • cites Kwan et al., 1997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extraversion, but not Agreeableness, is associated with self-esteem.

    “In particular, E, but not A, is associated with self-esteem (MacDonald & M. R. Leary, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MacDonald & M. R. Leary, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gebauer et al. found a stronger agency-esteem relation with increasing country-level agency and a stronger communion-esteem relation with increasing country-level communion.

    “They found a stronger agency-esteem relation with increasing country-level agency and a stronger communion-esteem relation with increasing country-level communion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gebauer, Wagner, Sedikides, and Neberich (2013) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    T. Leary claimed that all interpersonal behavior serves to reduce anxiety and to maintain self-esteem.

    “T. Leary (1957, p. 266) claimed that, “all interpersonal behavior serves to reduce anxiety and to maintain self-esteem.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites T. Leary (1957)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Study 1 presents the most systematic description of the Big Five's cross-cultural relations with self-esteem to date.

    “Over and above providing this first competitive test, Study 1 presents the most systematic description of the Big Five's cross-cultural relations with self-esteem to date.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Barkow's dominance theory posits that self-esteem is a sociometer for social dominance/getting ahead in the social world.

    “This theory posits that self-esteem is a sociometer for social dominance/getting ahead in the social world (see also M. R. Leary, Cottrell, & Phillips, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Barkow (1980)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites M. R. Leary, Cottrell, & Phillips, 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Factor analyses of the Big Five have revealed two higher-order factors: one subsumes Extraversion and Openness, the other subsumes Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Neuroticism.

    “Factor analyses of the Big Five have revealed two higher-order factors (DeYoung, 2006;Digman, 1997).One subsumes E and O, the other subsumes A, C, and N.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites DeYoung, 2006 source
    • cites Digman, 1997 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    According to the cultural norm-fulfillment perspective, a given Big Five trait should be related to self-esteem only if it is culturally normative.

    “According to the cultural norm-fulfillment perspective, a given Big Five trait should be related to self-esteem only if it is culturally normative.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Neuroticism reflects the habitual experience of negative affect, including anxiety, anger, guilt, and depression.

    “Specifically, N reflects the habitual experience of negative affect, including anxiety, anger, guilt, and depression (Widiger, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Widiger, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Goodwin et al.'s evidence largely supported the cultural norm-fulfillment perspective; caring was most strongly related to self-esteem in traditional cultures that value this trait most.

    “Their evidence largely supported the cultural norm-fulfillment perspective.For example, “caring” (a close relative of A) was most strongly related to self-esteem in traditional cultures, which value this trait most.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goodwin, Marshall, Fulop, Adonu, Spiewak, Neto, and Hernandez Plaza (2012) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The present study has sufficient power to test the hypotheses in a single multi-level model that simultaneously includes all Big Five traits at the individual and country levels.

    “Finally, as noted above, the present study has sufficient power to test our hypotheses in a single multi-level model, which simultaneously includes all Big Five traits at the individual level and at the country level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The evidence is fully consistent with the getting-ahead perspective but at odds with the cultural norm-fulfillment and interpersonal-belongingness perspectives.

    “The evidence is fully consistent with the getting-ahead perspective, but at odds with the cultural normfulfillment and interpersonal-belongingness perspectives (see Figure 1 for the predictions of all perspectives).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study is well-positioned to uncover the relation of each Big Five trait with self-esteem, while attending to the role of each Big Five trait at the country level.

    “As such, the study is well-positioned to uncover the relation of each Big Five trait with self-esteem, while additionally attending to the role of each Big Five trait at the country level.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Past research has validated informant-reports from close friends, coworkers, and family members.

    “Past research has validated informant-reports from close friends (Funder & Colvin, 1988), coworkers (Hogan, Hogan, & Roberts, 1996), and family members (Vazire & Mehl, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Funder & Colvin, 1988 source
    • cites Hogan, Hogan, & Roberts, 1996 source
    • cites Vazire & Mehl, 2008 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Study 1 used data from 2,718,838 participants, resulting in highly precise estimates of the Big Five's cross-cultural relations with self-esteem.

    “We used data from 2,718,838 participants, resulting in highly precise estimates of those relations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    A strength of the self-report study is its reliance on a very large sample (N = 2,718,838) across 106 countries.

    “A strength of this self-report study is its reliance on a very large sample (N = 2,718,838) across 106 countries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The cultural norm-fulfillment evidence in Study 1 was weak and can be parsimoniously explained by the getting-ahead perspective, according to which cultural norm-fulfillment is one means for getting ahead.

    “This evidence, however, was weak and can be parsimoniously explained by the getting-ahead perspective, according to which cultural norm-fulfillment is one means for getting ahead in the social world.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Study 2 was the first informant-report investigation on the Big Five's cross-cultural relations with self-esteem.

    “To the best of our knowledge, this is the first informantreport investigation on the Big Five's cross-cultural relations with self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The results pose difficulties for the interpersonal-belonging perspective, given that Agreeableness is a unique predictor of interpersonal belonging.

    “The results pose difficulties for the interpersonal-belonging perspective, given that A is a unique predictor of interpersonal belonging.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Study 1 provided the first competitive test of three major perspectives on the function of self-esteem.

    “Study 1 provided the first competitive test of three major perspectives on the function of self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The size of cultural norm-fulfillment effects is more consistent with the predictions of the getting-ahead perspective, and also of the interpersonal-belonging perspective, which received little support from the main effect analyses.

    “Their size is more consistent with the predictions of the getting-ahead perspective (and also of the interpersonal-belonging perspective, which, however, received little support from the main effect analyses).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Individuals who live up to their cultural norms will get ahead more easily than those who fail to do so.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The size of the cultural norm-fulfillment effects is consistent with the getting-ahead perspective and also with the interpersonal-belonging perspective.

    “Their size is consistent with the getting-ahead perspective; it is also consistent with the interpersonal-belonging perspective, which, however, received little support from the maineffect analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Factor analyses in the lexical tradition revealed an N factor alongside the E, A, C, and O factors, but no self-esteem factor emerged.

    “On first sight this conceptualization may appear problematic, because factor analyses in the lexical tradition revealed an N factor alongside the E, A, C, and O factors.At the same time, however, no self-esteem factor emerged from those factor analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The informant-report results fully replicate Study 1's self-report results and thus fit the getting-ahead perspective best.

    “These informant-report results fully replicate Study 1's self-report results and thus fit the gettingahead perspective best.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Anxiety and N both possess virtually identical change trajectories in response to changes in people's social relationships.

    “Similarly, anxiety and N both possess virtually identical change trajectories in response to changes in people's social relationships (Lehnart, Neyer, & Eccles, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lehnart, Neyer, & Eccles, 2010 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    M. R. Leary proposed that social anxiety serves as a sociometer.

    “M. R. Leary (2010) proposed that social anxiety serves as a sociometer.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites M. R. Leary (2010)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The factor analytic method is mute about whether its factors are functionally parallel.

    “Yet, the factor analytic method is mute about whether or not its factors are functionally parallel (cf.Wood, Gardner, & Harms, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wood, Gardner, & Harms, 2015 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Anxiety/N may serve as a meter signaling insufficient getting-along prospects.

    “As such, anxiety/N may well serve as a meter signaling insufficient getting-along prospects (T.Leary, 1957).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites T.Leary, 1957

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low anxiety/N is marked by low arousal positive affect, whereas high anxiety/N is marked by high arousal negative affect.

    “Low anxiety/N is marked by low arousal positive affect, whereas high anxiety/N is marked by high arousal negative affect (Higgins, Klein, & Strauman, 1985).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Higgins, Klein, & Strauman, 1985 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The results offer the first empirical backing that self-esteem functions as a sociometer for getting ahead, whereas anxiety/N functions as a sociometer for getting along.

    “The results offer the first empirical backing that self-esteem functions as a sociometer for getting ahead, whereas anxiety/N functions as a sociometer for getting along.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Emotion researchers have assumed that all emotions serve as affective-motivational signals or meters.

    “Further, emotion researchers have assumed that all emotions serve as affectivemotivational signals or meters (Frijda, 1986;McClelland, 1985).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Frijda, 1986

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McClelland, 1985 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The extreme-group results were remarkably similar to Study 1's and strongly favor the getting-ahead perspective over the interpersonal-belonging and cultural norm-fulfillment perspectives.

    “The results were remarkably similar to those of Study 1 (Figure 3) and thus strongly favor the getting-ahead perspective over the interpersonal-belonging and cultural norm-fulfillment perspectives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Self-esteem and anxiety/N have optimally distinct affective signatures allowing people to readily tell them apart.

    “Finally, selfesteem and anxiety/N have optimally distinct affective signatures allowing people to readily tell them apart.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Diverse research lines converge in the conclusion that N and self-esteem are functionally related.

    “Over and above that, diverse research lines converge in the conclusion that N and self-esteem are functionally related.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Furr & Funder, 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The results are difficult to explain from an interpersonal-belonging perspective, given that A chiefly matters for interpersonal belonging.

    “The results are difficult to explain from an interpersonal-belonging perspective, given that A chiefly matters for interpersonal belonging.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A is just as important for interpersonal belonging as is E.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Evidence from physiological psychology supports a dual sociometer system.

    “Evidence from physiological psychology also supports a dual sociometer system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bodily pains evolved as meters of bodily impairment, and different pain experiences signal different impairment types.

    “Bodily pains (acute and chronic) evolved as meters of bodily impairment (Melzack & Casey, 1968), and different pain experiences signal different impairment types (Price, Harkins, & Baker, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Melzack & Casey, 1968

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Price, Harkins, & Baker, 1987 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Narcissists are preoccupied with getting ahead at the expense of getting along and are consequently rejected and excluded in the long run.

    “Narcissists are preoccupied with getting ahead at the expense of getting along (Paulhus, 2001), and, as a consequence, they are rejected and excluded in the long run (Paulhus, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Paulhus, 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Paulhus, 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    It is difficult to tease apart anxiety and social anxiety because both have been exclusively traced back to social threats.

    “For example, it is difficult to tease apart anxiety and social anxiety, because both have been exclusively traced back to social threats (Baumeister & Tice, 1990; see also Matthews, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baumeister & Tice, 1990 source
    • cites Matthews, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The universality of the double-dissociation hypothesis stands on firm empirical grounds, a pattern that supports the getting-ahead perspective over the cultural norm-fulfillment and interpersonal-belonging perspectives.

    “Thus, the universality of the double-dissociation hypothesis stands on firm empirical grounds, a pattern that supports the getting-ahead perspective over the cultural norm-fulfillment and the interpersonalbelonging perspectives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High self-esteem is marked by high arousal positive affect, whereas low self-esteem is marked by low arousal negative affect.

    “High self-esteem is marked by high arousal positive affect, whereas low selfesteem is marked by low arousal negative affect (Moretti & Higgins, 1990).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moretti & Higgins, 1990 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The dual sociometer account describes N (or anxiety, N's most dominant component) as an affective-motivational meter functionally more akin to self-esteem than to the other Big Five traits.

    “At the conceptual level, our dual sociometer account describes N (or anxiety, N's most dominant component) as an affective-motivational meter, which is functionally more akin to self-esteem than to the other Big Five traits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    N and self-esteem belong to the same category of evaluative traits and are less content laden than the other four Big Five traits.

    “Specifically, both traits belong to the same category of evaluative traits (Furr & Funder, 1999;Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002; M.R. Leary & Hoyle, 2009;Leising et al., 2013) and are less content laden than the other four Big Five traits (Paulhus & John, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Furr & Funder, 1999

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002 source
    • cites Paulhus & John, 1998 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    With an increasing number of indicators, the CFI increasingly underestimates model fit.

    “With an increasing number of indicators, the CFI increasingly underestimates model fit (Kenny & McCoach, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kenny & McCoach, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gebauer, Wagner et al. (2012) found consistent evidence for norm-fulfillment in the relation between agency-communion and self-esteem, but those norm-fulfillment effects were much smaller than cultural norm-fulfillment effects on self-esteem.

    “They found consistent evidence for norm-fulfillment, but those norm-fulfillment effects were much smaller than was cultural norm-fulfillment on selfesteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gebauer, Wagner et al. (2012)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The SISES is so highly correlated with Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale that the two scales can be regarded as parallel measures of the same construct.

    “For example, the SISES is so highly correlated with Rosenberg's (1965) Self-Esteem Scale that the two scales can be regarded as parallel measures of the same construct (Robins et al., 2001b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robins et al., 2001b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recent research indicates that the state-to-trait effect also pertains to state and trait self-esteem.

    “and recent research indicates that this effect also pertains to state and trait self-esteem (Huttemann, Nestler, Wagner, Egloff, & Back, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Huttemann, Nestler, Wagner, Egloff, & Back, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Norm-fulfillment effects on self-esteem may also apply to more refined social norms, such as age, sex, and religiosity norms.

    “normfulfillment effects on self-esteem may also apply to more refined social norms, such as age, sex, and religiosity norms (Crocker & Major, 1989;Gebauer, Wagner et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Crocker & Major, 1989 source
    • cites Gebauer, Wagner et al., 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Scalar invariance is necessary and sufficient to meaningfully interpret differences in scale means across countries.

    “Scalar invariance is necessary und sufficient to meaningfully interpret differences in scale means across countries (Horn & McArdle, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Horn & McArdle, 1992 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The data from Asia may not reflect typical Asian characteristics because the Asian participants completed the studies in English (or in Spanish, German, or Dutch).

    “our data from Asia may not reflect typical Asian characteristics, because our Asian participants had to complete our studies in English (or in Spanish, German,”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Metric invariance is necessary and sufficient to meaningfully interpret differences in correlations across countries.

    “Metric invariance is necessary und sufficient to meaningfully interpret differences in correlations across countries (Horn & McArdle, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Horn & McArdle, 1992 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Self-esteem can be conceptualized as a sociometer for getting ahead in the social world, whereas anxiety/N can be conceptualized as a sociometer for getting along with others.

    “Self-esteem can be conceptualized as a sociometer for getting ahead in the social world, whereas anxiety/N can be conceptualized as a sociometer for getting along with others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The differences across self-esteem measures were small, do not challenge the conclusions from Studies 1-2, and provide additional independent support for the getting-ahead perspective.

    “Importantly, these differences were small and do not challenge our conclusions from Studies 1-2.In fact, they provide additional and independent support for the getting-ahead perspective.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia.

    “norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999 source
    • cites Kobayashi & Brown, 2003 source
    • cites Kurman, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The sociometer system presumably evolved in Homo sapiens when they lived in small hunter-gatherer groups in the African savannah.

    “Finally, the sociometer system presumably evolved in Homo sapiens (or their hominid ancestors) when they lived in small hunter-gatherer groups in the African savannah (M.R. Leary, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites M.R. Leary, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The present measures generally yielded evidence satisfying even the more conservative recommendations.

    “As can be seen, the present measures generally yielded evidence satisfying even the more conservative recommendations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    MacDonald, Satzman, and M. R. Leary argued that sociometer theory is relevant to the understanding of trait self-esteem.

    “Indeed, MacDonald, Satzman, and M. R. Leary (2003) argued that sociometer theory is relevant to the understanding of trait self-esteem.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MacDonald, Satzman, and M. R. Leary (2003)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The psychometric properties of single-item measures typically fall behind those of multi-item measures, but a large body of evidence suggests the SISES may be an exception.

    “The On the Function of Self-Esteem 27 psychometric properties of single-item measures typically fall behind those of multi-item measures; however a large body of evidence suggests that the SISES may be an exception (Gebauer, Broemer, Haddock, & von Hecker, 2008;Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, & Potter, 2002;Ross & Wilson, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gebauer, Broemer, Haddock, & von Hecker, 2008 source
    • cites Robins, Trzesniewski, Tracy, Gosling, & Potter, 2002 source
    • cites Ross & Wilson, 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The country-level indices (our own indices as well as the external ones) are not representative of the countries at large, but may be representative of more specific subcultures within each country.

    “Together, those analyses suggest that the country-level indices (our own indices as well as the external ones) are not representative of the countries at large, but may be representative of more specific subcultures within each country.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    When engaging in competitive testing, it is crucial to operationalize the constructs at the same level of specificity or generality to achieve a fair outcome.

    “When engaging in competitive testing, it is crucial to operationalize the constructs at the same level of specificity or generality in order to achieve a fair outcome (Platt, 1964;Sedikides, Gaertner, Luke, O'Mara, & Gebauer, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Platt, 1964 source
    • cites Sedikides, Gaertner, Luke, O'Mara, & Gebauer, 2013

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Most theories in the norm-fulfillment tradition emphasize the role of cultural norms.

    “Most theories in the norm-fulfillment tradition emphasize the role of cultural norms (Pyszczynski et al., 2004;Rosenberg, 1965;Sedikides et al., 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Pyszczynski et al., 2004 source
    • cites Rosenberg, 1965 source
    • cites Sedikides et al., 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The very small norm-fulfillment effects are in line with the getting-ahead perspective and did not conceptually challenge any of the paper's conclusions.

    “Such small effects are in line with the getting-ahead perspective and did not conceptually challenge any of our conclusions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
99 of 99

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Norm-fulfillment effects on self-esteem are direct and strong, whereas relevant effects on other emotional dispositions, such as anxiety/Neuroticism, are indirect and weak.

    “It is generally assumed that norm-fulfillment effects on self-esteem are direct and strong, whereas relevant effects on other emotional dispositions, such as anxiety/N, are indirect and weak (Fulmer et al., 2010;Gebauer, Wagner et al., 2013;Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski, 1997;Higgins, 2000;Sedikides, Gaertner, & Vevea, 2005).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Individuals who live up to their cultural norms will get ahead more easily than those who fail to do so.

    “Individuals who live up to their cultural norms will get ahead more easily than those who fail to do so.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Extraversion is probably the only direct Big Five predictor of getting ahead in the social world.

    “E probably is the only direct Big Five predictor of getting ahead in the social world.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Big Five are intercorrelated at both the individual and country levels.

    “Such controls are important at the individual level and at the country level, because the Big Five are intercorrelated at both levels.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A is just as important for interpersonal belonging as is E.

    “In contrast, A consistently failed to predict self-esteem, although A is just as important for interpersonal belonging as is E.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Using random slope models may be overly conservative in complex multi-level designs like ours.

    “Using random slope models may be overly conservative in complex multi-level designs like ours.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Self-esteem is more reflective of getting ahead than of getting along.

    “Gebauer et al. (2015)concluded from a strong association that self-esteem had with extraversion but not with agreeableness that self-esteem is more reflective of getting ahead than of getting along.”

    From Self‐esteem development and life events: A review and integrative process framework (2022) · cites this paper as Gebauer et al. (2015)

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentz = 3.41reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “z = 3.41, p < .001”

  • Consistentz = 4.57reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “z = 4.57, p < .001”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Study 2 has conflicting sample sizes and country counts

    Major

    The abstract reports 837,655 informants from 64 countries, but the methods report 826,980 informants from 65 countries. The two descriptions disagree on both the number of informants and the number of countries.

  • Study 1 has conflicting sample sizes and country counts

    Major

    The methods report 2,718,838 participants from 106 countries, while the general discussion reports 2,408,475 participants from 101 countries for the same study. That leaves a discrepancy of 310,363 participants and five countries in the study underlying the conclusions.

  • The cited ethnicity table instead contains country results

    Minor

    The paper says Table S6 presents tests in 13 ethnic groups from the US subsample. Table S6 instead describes Study 2 country-level informant correlations and begins with country names, so it does not present the claimed ethnicity test.

  • Table S5's agreeableness interaction has an inconsistent t statistic

    Minor

    For the A × A interaction, the printed coefficient divided by its standard error is 1.00, not the reported t of 0.10. This gap cannot be explained by rounding the two printed inputs.

    Reported 0.1 · recomputed 1

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. [4]4. Barkow, J. (1980). Prestige and self-esteem: A biosocial interpretation. In D. R. Omark, F .F. Strayer, & D. G. Freedman (Eds.), Dominance relations: An ethological view of human conflict and social interaction (pp. 319-332). New York, NY: Garland STPM Press.
  2. [10]10. Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1990). Anxiety and social exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 165-195. On the Function of Self-Esteem 32
  3. [34]34. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  4. [59]59. Huttemann, R., Nestler, S, Wagner, J., Egloff, B., & Back, M. D. (in press). Wherever I may roam: Processes of self-esteem development from adolescence to emerging adulthood in the context of international mobility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
  5. [62]62. John, O. P. (1990). The "Big Five" factor taxonomy: Dimensions of personality in the natural language and questionnaires. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.) Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 66-100) New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  6. [64]64. John, O. P., Naumann, L. P., & Soto, C. J. (2008). Paradigm shift to the integrative Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In O.P. John, R.W. Robins, & L.A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 114-158). New York, NY: Guilford.
  7. [96]96. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T. Jr., & Yik, M. S. M. (1996). Universal aspects of Chinese personality structure. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 189-207). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
  8. [99]99. Melzack, R., & Casey, K. L. (1968). Sensory, motivational, and control determinants of pain: a new conceptual model. In D. Kenshalo (Ed.), The skin senses (pp. 423-443).
  9. [134]134. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, methods, and applications (pp. 85-119). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
  10. [140]140. Shadish, W. R., & Haddock, C. K. (1994). Combining estimates of effect sizes. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 261-281). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
  11. [144]144. Teppers, E., Klimstra, T., Van Damme, C., Luyckx, K., Vanhalst, J., & Goossens, L. (2013). Personality traits, loneliness, and attitudes to being alone in adolescence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30, 1045-1063.
  12. [153]153. Wilt, J., & Revelle, W. (2009). Extraversion. In M. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in social behavior (pp. 27-45). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

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Authors
Gebauer, J. E., Sedikides, C., Wagner, J., Bleidorn, W., Rentfrow, P. J., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D.
Affiliations
  • Mannheim Centre for European Social Research (DE)
  • University of Southampton (GB)
  • Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (DE)
  • Tilburg University (NL)
  • University of Cambridge (GB)
  • The University of Texas at Austin (US)
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2015-09
Volume
109
Issue
3
Pages
526-548
ISSN
  • 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1315
DOI
10.1037/pspp0000052
OpenAlex
W2219051487
Cited by
84
References
221
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 3 · 2013: 1
FWCI
12.81
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • Research portal (Tilburg University) (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion)
  • ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (acceptedVersion)
  • Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion)
  • Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
  • MADOC (University of Mannheim) (submittedVersion)
  • Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
Funders
German Research Foundation (GE 2515/3-1)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords
self-esteem, sociometer theory, Big Five personality traits, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, cross-cultural comparison, informant reports, self-report
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Culture, Extraversion, Psychological, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Personality, Self Concept, Social Dominance, Young Adult

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