The DOI matches its Crossref record; 68 of the 72 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Should We Trust Web-Based Studies? A Comparative Analysis of Six Preconceptions About Internet Questionnaires.
Abstract
The rapid growth of the Internet provides a wealth of new research opportunities for psychologists. Internet data collection methods, with a focus on self-report questionnaires from self-selected samples, are evaluated and compared with traditional paper-and-pencil methods. Six preconceptions about Internet samples and data quality are evaluated by comparing a new large Internet sample (N = 361,703) with a set of 510 published traditional samples. Internet samples are shown to be relatively diverse with respect to gender, socioeconomic status, geographic region, and age. Moreover, Internet findings generalize across presentation formats, are not adversely affected by nonserious or repeat responders, and are consistent with findings from traditional methods. It is concluded that Internet methods can contribute to many areas of psychology.
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“The proportion of females (62%) to males in this study was more representative than in traditional survey methods, where women often comprise 71% to 77% of the participants [39]”
From Effects of Mock Facebook Workday Comments on Public Perception of Professional Credibility: A Field Study in Canada (2019) · cites this paper as [39]
In the citing paper
“Self-presentation is an unlikely confound in Study 1 because the motivation to self-present is absent when participants feel anonymous (Paulhus, 1984(Paulhus, , 1991) ) as they do in anonymous online studies such as the present one, where they don't provide identifying information (Gosling et al., 2004).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Gosling et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“As described in the Appendix, the reliability and validity of internet data collection has become increasingly clear in recent years.”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Gosling et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“The validity of internet testing has been well supported in recent reviews (Gosling et al., 2004), with excellent correspondence between results obtained with internet samples are results obtained in the laboratory (e.g., Birnbaum, 1999;Krantz & Dalal, 2000;McGraw, Tew, & Williams, 2000;Reips, 2002).”
From Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention (2008) · cites this paper as Gosling et al., 2004
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, previous research has suggested populations for online studies and Facebook are quite representative [23], [24].”
From Personality, Gender, and Age in the Language of Social Media: The Open-Vocabulary Approach (2013) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“Still, the sample sizes and availability of demographic information afforded by social media bring us closer to a more ideal representative sample [99].”
From Personality, Gender, and Age in the Language of Social Media: The Open-Vocabulary Approach (2013) · cites this paper as [99]
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BackgroundExploring the motives of company-backed and self-initiated expatriates
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“However, this methodology was cost effective and allowed more extensive coverage of the target groups than previous research has achieved (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava and John 2004 ).”
ResultConsiderations for employing intersectionality in qualitative health research
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“…restrict access or utilization of app or web-based platforms for some populations, such as older adults or homeless persons, as well as people in less developed regions, web-based recruitment e ff orts have been shown to net more diverse samples than traditional techniques (Gosling et al., 2004).”
BackgroundPredictors of Depression and Anxiety Among International Students
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“Some of the motivation for lying stems from a lack of anonymity in paper-based surveys; this is where online-based systems excel, because they can provide true anonymity (Gosling et al., 2004).”
BackgroundImplementing a five-factor personality inventory for use on the internet
Buchanan, T., Johnson, J. A., & Goldberg, L. R. (2005) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759.21.2.115 · Cited by 301
Development and Validation of a Dutch Translation of the Big Five Inventory (BFI)
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“…the use of Internet surveys can lead to the inclusion of even more diverse samples of participants than conventional methods, and data from well-designed Internet studies are comparable to those 152 obtained with traditional paper–and-pencil methods (Gosling et al., 2004; Skitka & Sargis, 2005).”
InfluentialSelf-citationWoods, D. W., Flessner, C. A., Franklin, M. E., Keuthen, N. J., Goodwin, R. D., Stein, D. J., Walther, M. R., & Trichotillomania Learning Center-Scientific Advisory Board (2006) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v67n1207 · Cited by 317
Weiss, D. J., & Lang, F. R. (2011) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0024887 · Cited by 299
Mindfulness, Work Climate, and Psychological Need Satisfaction in Employee Well-being
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“Growing evidence shows that findings of studies conducted on MTurk are similar to those from offline settings and other online platforms, including survey research (e.g., Buhrmester et al. 2011; Gosling et al. 2004), decision-making studies (e.”
MethodResultComputerized Adaptive Assessment of Personality Disorder: Introducing the CAT–PD Project
Simms, L. J., Goldberg, L. R., Roberts, J. E., Watson, D., Welte, J. W., & Rotterman, J. H. (2011) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2011.577475 · Cited by 325
Differences in Empathic Concern and Perspective Taking Across 63 Countries
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“14–17 For example, in a multinational study of 361,703 participants, Gosling et al. 15 found that the results of web-based studies were fundamentally similar to those obtained from traditional paperand-pencil measures, with participant response sets having minimal impact.”
ResultGay and Bisexual Men's Use of the Internet: Research from the 1990s through 2013
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“Given the recent popularity of Grindr, its use for research recruitment has been quite minimal. However, a recent study by Burrell and colleagues (2012) utilized Grindr as a means to send out recruitment advertisements for enrollment into a clinical trial to inform the development of rectal microbicides.”
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Do bilinguals have two personalities? A special case of cultural frame switching
Ramírez-Esparza, N., Gosling, S., Benet-Martínez, V., Potter, J., & Pennebaker, J. (2006) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2004.09.001 · Cited by 299
“In addition, although Internet users are not representative of the general population, they are at least as diverse as other samples typically used in psychological research (Gosling et al., 2004).”
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Measuring Psychological Capital: Construction and Validation of the Compound PsyCap Scale (CPC-12)
Lorenz, T., Beer, C., Pütz, J., & Heinitz, K. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152892 · Cited by 337
“Although Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava and John [87] agree that data from the internet is not free from methodological constraints, they do emphasize that samples using online recruitment are as diverse, adjusted, at least as good in quality as most traditional methods and “not as flawed as is commonly believed” (p. 102…”
BackgroundFamily burden of compulsive hoarding: Results of an internet survey
Tolin, D. F., Frost, R. O., Steketee, G., & Fitch, K. E. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.12.008 · Cited by 288
Scientists’ transition to academic entrepreneurship: Economic and psychological determinants
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Player Identification in Online Games: Validation of a Scale for Measuring Identification in MMOGs
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“Survey research has a number of advantages but also several limitations such as reliability issues in online surveys and a possible self-selection bias (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004).”
BackgroundAbusive Supervision and Retaliation: A Self-Control Framework
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The Bergen Shopping Addiction Scale: reliability and validity of a brief screening test
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“Lack of motivation and integrity in web-based surveys are two potential concerns, but studies have shown that web-based respondents are typically highly-motivated due to self-selection and anonymity does not have an adverse affect on data integrity (for review, see [ 29 ]).”
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“20 in the year 2002; see Gosling et al. 2004 for details).”
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“The sample used in this survey is by no means representative of either the general population or the internet-using population, which however is not critical because we are primarily interested in differences among experimental groups (Gosling et al. 2004; Reips 2002).”
Marginalized Relationships: The Impact of Social Disapproval on Romantic Relationship Commitment
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“However, web surveys have een found to be as reliable as other surveys (Gosling et al., 2004).”
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“Moreover, the available evidence suggests that data collected via the Internet are generally as reliable and valid as data collected via paper-and-pencil methods (Chuah, Drasgow, & Roberts, 2006; Gosling et al., 2004).”
Understanding online shopping intention: the roles of four types of trust and their antecedents.
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“However, a recent review of the psychological literature suggests that fears about the unrepresentativeness of web-based samples are exaggerated (Gosling et al. 2004).”
BackgroundResultCourse of compulsive hoarding and its relationship to life events
Tolin, D. F., Meunier, S. A., Frost, R. O., & Steketee, G. (2010) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20684 · Cited by 250
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“Schmitt viewed these findings as providing strong support for strategic pluralism theory, which proposes that humans have evolved a menu of mating strategies, which are triggered by environmental contingencies ( Gangestad & Simpson, 2000 ).”
BackgroundSocial desirability bias in self-reported well-being measures: evidence from an online survey
Caputo, A. (2017) · Universitas Psychologica · doi:10.11144/javeriana.upsy16-2.sdsw · Cited by 194
Raynor, D. A., & Levine, H. B. (2009) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.58.1.73-82 · Cited by 241
How Moral Migration Geographically Segregates and Polarizes Groups
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“implies the core values that span most of a person's moral worldview and that there are important differences between people who adhere to one worldview or another (Graham et al., 2013; Jost et al., 2003; Jost, 2009). Much in the sameway that race is discussed, there are cultural and lifestyle differences between libe…”
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“Emmers-Sommer (2004) tracked participants’ assessments of communication quality and quantity within either romantic relationships or friendships and found that both indicators (aggregated across 1 week) independently predicted relationship satisfaction and intimacy.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFactors influencing mobile services adoption: a brand‐equity perspective
Wang, W., & Li, H. (2012) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/10662241211214548 · Cited by 252
“Finally, prior research indicates that findings generated from internet samples tend to be unaffected by presentation formats and are not adversely affected by non-serious or repeat responders (Gosling et al., 2004).”
BackgroundResultShah, P., Gaule, A., Sowden, S., Bird, G., & Cook, R. (2015) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.140343 · Cited by 236
Frederick, D. A., Lever, J., Gillespie, B. J., & Garcia, J. R. (2016) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1137854 · Cited by 241
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“Moreover, the majority of Internet-mediated research has demonstrated that this medium addresses the same psychological phenomena and produces the same patterns of results as its traditional counterparts (Gosling et al. 2004), and previous research has supported the use of the FFMQ in Internet-mediated data collection…”
ResultOverconfidence and investment: An experimental approach
PIKULINA, E. S., Renneboog, L. D. R., & Tobler, P. N. (2017) · Journal of Corporate Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2017.01.002 · Cited by 234
“The results of internet-based experiments are mostly found to be similar to those from lab experiments (see also Anderhub, Müller and Schmidt (2001); Gosling et al. (2004); Chesney et al.”
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Harzer, C., & Ruch, W. (2012) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2012.702784 · Cited by 230
Ladwig, I., Rief, W., & Nestoriuc, Y. (2014) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000367928 · Cited by 227
Parental reports on the use of treatments and therapies for children with autism spectrum disorders
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Character strengths in the United Kingdom: The VIA Inventory of Strengths
Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.004 · Cited by 230
Owner reports of attention, activity, and impulsivity in dogs: a replication study
Lit, L., Schweitzer, J. B., Iosif, A., & Oberbauer, A. M. (2010) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-1 · Cited by 235
“Our findings also confirmed that data collected with an Internet survey generated consistent findings when compared to researcher-assisted data collection, supporting web-based surveys as a means to generate valid data [ 60 ].”
ResultReaction time effects in lab- versus Web-based research: Experimental evidence
Hilbig, B. E. (2015) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0678-9 · Cited by 224
“…suggesting that Web-based data will yield results that are comparable to those obtained with more traditional methods (Germine et al., 2012; Gosling et al., 2004; Reips & Birnbaum, 2011), skepticism is still commonplace, especially concerning Web-based measurement of reaction times…”
ResultCannabis with high cannabidiol content is associated with fewer psychotic experiences
Schubart, C. D., Sommer, I. E., van Gastel, W. A., Goetgebuer, R., Kahn, R. S., & Boks, M. P. (2011) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.04.017 · Cited by 238
Cohrs, J. C., Moschner, B., Maes, J., & Kielmann, S. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205275614 · Cited by 227
Personality and prosocial behavior: Linking basic traits and social value orientations.
Hilbig, B. E., Glöckner, A., & Zettler, I. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036074 · Cited by 246
Challenges to capture the big five personality traits in non-WEIRD populations
Laajaj, R., Macours, K., Pinzon Hernandez, D. A., Arias, O., Gosling, S. D., Potter, J., Rubio-Codina, M., & Vakis, R. (2019) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw5226 · Cited by 225
Self-citationVerplanken, B., & Roy, D. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074708 · Cited by 223
“However, Gosling and colleagues demonstrated that there is no reason to suggest that these methods provide less quality data than traditional methods [49].”
BackgroundFacets of mindfulness – Results of an online study investigating the Freiburg mindfulness inventory
Kohls, N., Sauer, S., & Walach, H. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.10.009 · Cited by 276
Empathy and emotion recognition in people with autism, first-degree relatives, and controls
Sucksmith, E., Allison, C. L., Baron‐Cohen, S., Chakrabarti, B., & Hoekstra, R. A. (2012) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.11.013 · Cited by 240
Feasibility of Using Web-based Questionnaires in Large Population-based Epidemiological Studies
Ekman, A., Dickman, P. W., Klint, Å., Weiderpass, E., & Litton, J. (2006) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-005-6030-4 · Cited by 225
“Although a fast developing field where many research initiatives are undertaken, previous studies have not been population-based, respondents were often self-selected and the findings therefore difficult to generalize [5–13].”
BackgroundOccurrence and Family Impact of Elopement in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Anderson, C. M., Law, J. K., Daniels, A. M., Rice, C. E., Mandell, D. S., Hagopian, L. P., & Law, P. A. (2012) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0762 · Cited by 232
“33, 34 Another potential limitation is selection bias among the IAN participants who chose to take the survey.”
Moradi, B., Mohr, J. J., Worthington, R. L., & Fassinger, R. E. (2009) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014572 · Cited by 218
Conelea, C. A., Woods, D. W., Zinner, S., Budman, C., Murphy, T., Scahill, L., Compton, S., & Walkup, J. (2011) · Child Psychiatry and Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-010-0211-4 · Cited by 210
“Importantly, research comparing data collected in person versus over the Internet has demonstrated that results are similar across administration formats, consistent with results from studies using traditional methodology, and without adverse impact by repeat or false responders [ 29 , 30].”
ResultMcGrath, R. E. (2014) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2014.994222 · Cited by 234
Elsesser, K. M., & Lever, J. (2011) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726711424323 · Cited by 245
“There has been concern that some groups are underrepresented in internet research, but a recent study that compared internet research to traditional survey methods found internet samples to be relatively diverse with respect to gender, age, socioeconomic status and geographic region (Gosling et al., 2004).”
ResultCharacter strengths in 75 nations: An update
McGrath, R. E. (2014) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2014.888580 · Cited by 235
“3%) are among the 35 economies the International Monetary Fund (2013) considers ‘advanced’; none of the countries where it fell in the bottom five are on that list.”
BackgroundComparing online and lab methods in a problem-solving experiment
Dandurand, F., Shultz, T. R., & Onishi, K. H. (2008) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/brm.40.2.428 · Cited by 215
Prevalence and Association of Sexting and Online Sexual Victimization Among Spanish Adults
Gámez‐Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Borrajo, E., & Calvete, E. (2015) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-015-0186-9 · Cited by 249
“However, it is important to stress that web-based findings appear to generalize across presentation formats, do not seem to be affected by repeat responders or false data, and are consistent with results from traditional studies (Gosling et al. 2004).”
ResultHealth Information–Seeking Behaviors, Health Indicators, and Health Risks
Weaver, J. B., Mays, D. M., Weaver, S. S., Hopkins, G. L., Eroğlu, D., & Bernhardt, J. M. (2010) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2009.180521 · Cited by 214
Wood, D., Harms, P. D., Lowman, G. H., & DeSimone, J. A. (2017) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617703168 · Cited by 243
Metadata
- Authors
- Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2004
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 93-104
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W1992490637
- Cited by
- 2,932
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 123 · 2021: 135 · 2020: 157 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 148 · 2017: 170 · 2016: 181 · 2015: 192 · 2014: 218 · 2013: 184 · 2012: 189
- FWCI
- 261.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Mobile Crowdsensing and Crowdsourcing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Focus Groups and Qualitative Methods
- Keywords
- online data collection, paper-and-pencil questionnaires, sample representativeness, data quality, response format effects, generalizability, self-report questionnaire
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Attitude, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychology, Surveys and Questionnaires, Evidence-Based Medicine, Internet
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