Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes.
Open accessAbstract
This article reports findings on the use of a partly auditory and partly visual mode of presentation for geometry worked examples. The logic was based on the split-attention effect and the effect of presentation modality on working memory. The split-attention effect occurs when students must split their attention between multiple sources of information, which results in a heavy cognitive load. Presentation-modality effects suggest that working memory has partially independent processors for handling visual and auditory material. Effective working memory may be increased by presenting material in a mixed rather than a unitary mode. If so, the negative consequences of split attention in geometry might be ameliorated by presenting geometry statements in auditory, rather than visual, form. The results of 6 experiments supported this hypothesis. In recent years, working memory limitations have been identified as a major factor that needs to be considered when instruction is designed. Researchers have used cognitive load theory (e.g., Sweller, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994) to sug-gest that many commonly used instructional procedures are
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Mousavi et al. (1995) found the modality effect in geometry learning, and it has since been replicated in many other experiments.
“They indeed found the modality effect that has since been replicated in many other experiments.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Mousavi et al. (1995)
Cites
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048 · see citing works
Self-citationMental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach
Paivio, A. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 5,087 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design
Sweller, J. (1994) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/0959-4752(94)90003-5 · Cited by 3,801 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2 · Cited by 2,894 · see citing works
Self-citationPaas, F. G. W. C. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429 · Cited by 2,150 · see citing works
Why Some Material Is Difficult to Learn
Sweller, J., & Chandler, P. (1994) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1203_1 · Cited by 1,455 · see citing works
Self-citationPaas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122 · Cited by 1,198 · see citing works
When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.715 · Cited by 1,051 · see citing works
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.444 · Cited by 1,000 · cited 4× · see citing works
“It might be noted, that on the surface, the results of Experiment 3 might appear to contradict those of Mayer and Anderson (1991, 1992) who found that simultaneous auditory and visual presentation was superior to successive.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPaas, F. G. W. C., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1993) · Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872089303500412 · Cited by 921 · see citing works
Animations need narrations: an experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.4.484 · Cited by 883 · cited 3× · see citing works
“It might be noted, that on the surface, the results of Experiment 3 might appear to contradict those of Mayer and Anderson (1991, 1992) who found that simultaneous auditory and visual presentation was superior to successive.”
BackgroundResultTHE SPLIT‐ATTENTION EFFECT AS A FACTOR IN THE DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION
CHANDLER, P., & SWELLER, J. (1992) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1992.tb01017.x · Cited by 767 · see citing works
Self-citationModality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory
Penney, C. G. (1989) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03202613 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical material.
Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tierney, P., & Cooper, M. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.119.2.176 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
Self-citationOn the Division of Attention: A Disproof of the Single Channel Hypothesis
Allport, D. A., Antonis, B., & Reynolds, P. (1972) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/00335557243000102 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
Systematic thinking fostered by illustrations in scientific text.
Mayer, R. E. (1989) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.81.2.240 · Cited by 515 · see citing works
The Suppression of Visualization by Reading
Brooks, L. R. (1967) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/14640746708400105 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Counting on working memory in arithmetic problem solving
Logie, R. H., Gilhooly, K. J., & Wynn, V. (1994) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03200866 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Guidance during mathematical problem solving.
Tarmizi, R. A., & Sweller, J. (1988) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.424 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
Self-citationStructuring Effective Worked Examples
Ward, M., & Sweller, J. (1990) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0701_1 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Self-citationSweller, J. (1989) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.81.4.457 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Self-citationUsing worked examples as an instructional support in the algebra classroom.
Carroll, W. M. (1994) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.3.360 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Strategies for Computer-Based Programming Instruction: Program Completion vs. Program Generation
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & De Croock, M. B. M. (1992) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/mjdx-9pp4-kfmt-09pm · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Some cognitive processes and their consequences for the organisation and presentation of information
Sweller, J. (1993) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049539308259112 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationSchema training in analogical reasoning.
Robins, S., & Mayer, R. E. (1993) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.3.529 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Using both an auditory and a visual short-term store to increase digit span
Frick, R. W. (1984) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03198313 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Yee, P. L., Hunt, E. B., & Pellegrino, J. W. (1991) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(91)90007-b · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Visual Imagery as a Prose-Learning Process
Levin, J. R., & Divine-Hawkins, P. (1974) · Journal of Reading Behavior · doi:10.1080/10862967409547074 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Text editing of algebraic word problems
Low, R., & Over, R. (1990) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049539008260106 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive load, schema acquisition, and procedural adaptation in nonisomorphic analogical transfer.
Pierce, K. A., Duncan, M. K., Gholson, B., Ray, G. E., & Kamhi, A. G. (1993) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.1.66 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Hierarchical ordering of schematic knowledge relating to area-of-rectangle problems.
Low, R., & Over, R. (1992) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.1.62 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationLow, R., Over, R., Doolan, L., & Michell, S. (1994) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422882 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationSome cognitive factors relevant to mathematics instruction
Sweller, J., & Low, R. (1992) · Mathematics Education Research Journal · doi:10.1007/bf03217233 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Mayer, R. (2020) · doi:10.1017/9781316941355 · Cited by 7,777 · see citing works
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022193728205 · Cited by 6,023 · see citing works
Self-citationNine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_6 · Cited by 4,207 · see citing works
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5 · Cited by 2,337 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0 · Cited by 2,206 · see citing works
Self-citationKalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_4 · Cited by 1,927 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2010) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03498.x · Cited by 1,511 · see citing works
Self-citationMayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.312 · Cited by 1,315 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought
de Jong, T. (2010) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9110-0 · Cited by 1,180 · see citing works
“In studies in which the modality effect was found (e.g., Kalyuga et al. 1999, 2000; Mayer and Moreno 1998; Moreno and Mayer 1999a; Mousavi et al. 1995) information presentation was system-paced and generally very rapid, so that even the information presented in the complete visual condition could hardly be processed.”
BackgroundExpertise Reversal Effect and Its Implications for Learner-Tailored Instruction
Kalyuga, S. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9054-3 · Cited by 1,056 · see citing works
“Integration of the verbal auditory and pictorial visual information may not overload working memory if its capacity is effectively expanded by using a dual-mode presentation (modality effect; e.g., Mayer 1997; Mousavi et al. 1995; Tindall-Ford et al. 1997).”
BackgroundMoreno, R., Mayer, R. E., Spires, H. A., & Lester, J. C. (2001) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1902_02 · Cited by 912 · see citing works
Direct Measurement of Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning
Brunken, R., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2003) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3801_7 · Cited by 896 · see citing works
Pictorial Illustrations Still Improve Students' Learning from Text
Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2002) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1013176309260 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
Meta-analysis of the modality effect
Ginns, P. (2005) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.07.001 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
Evolution of human cognitive architecture
Sweller, J. (2003) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)01015-6 · Cited by 511 · see citing works
Self-citationPaas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9179-2 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
Self-citationMultimedia instructions and cognitive load theory: Effects of modality and cueing
Tabbers, H. K., Martens, R. L., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709904322848824 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Instructional Efficiency: Revisiting the Original Construct in Educational Research
van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701756248 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Sweller, J. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021808.72598.4d · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems
Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C. (2003) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2104_1 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Integrating information: A meta-analysis of the spatial contiguity and temporal contiguity effects
Ginns, P. (2006) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.10.001 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Moreno, R. (2006) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00170.x · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Fostering social agency in multimedia learning: Examining the impact of an animated agent’s voice
Atkinson, R. K., Mayer, R. E., & Merrill, M. M. (2005) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.07.001 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory, modality of presentation and the transient information effect
Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1787 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Self-citationRevising the redundancy principle in multimedia learning.
Mayer, R. E., & Johnson, C. I. (2008) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.2.380 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
The Role of Visual Indicators in Dual Sensory Mode Instruction
Jeung, H., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/0144341970170307 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effects of video on cognitive load and social presence in multimedia-learning
Homer, B. D., Plass, J. L., & Blake, L. (2008) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.02.009 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
When do we interact multimodally?: cognitive load and multimodal communication patterns
Oviatt, S., Coulston, R., & Lunsford, R. (2004) · Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Multimodal interfaces · doi:10.1145/1027933.1027957 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Brünken, R., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2004) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/b:truc.0000021812.96911.c5 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Marcus, N., Cooper, M., & Sweller, J. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.49 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Self-citationHow to Optimize Learning From Animated Models: A Review of Guidelines Based on Cognitive Load
Wouters, P., Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654308320320 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Sweller, J. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09817-2 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Self-citationFostering multimedia learning of science: Exploring the role of an animated agent’s image
Dunsworth, Q., & Atkinson, R. K. (2007) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.010 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Does the modality principle for multimedia learning apply to science classrooms?
Harskamp, E. G., Mayer, R. E., & Suhre, C. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.010 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Memory characteristics and modality in multimedia learning: An aptitude–treatment–interaction study
Seufert, T., Schütze, M., & Brünken, R. (2009) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.01.002 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Instructional benefits of spoken words: A review of cognitive load factors
Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2011.12.002 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
W. M. Van Gerven, F. G. W. C. P. (2000) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601270050133874 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Khalil, M. K., Paas, F., Johnson, T. E., & Payer, A. F. (2005) · The Anatomical Record Part B: The New Anatomist · doi:10.1002/ar.b.20078 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Observational learning from animated models: Effects of modality and reflection on transfer
Wouters, P., Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2009) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.03.001 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Khalil, M. K., Nelson, L. D., & Kibble, J. D. (2010) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.177 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Kablan, Z., & Erden, M. (2008) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.07.002 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
von der Mühlen, S., Richter, T., Schmid, S., & Berthold, K. (2019) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-018-9471-3 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Accessibility of audio and tactile interfaces for young blind people performing everyday tasks
Shimomura, Y., Hvannberg, E. T., & Hafsteinsson, H. (2010) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-009-0183-y · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Cognitive Load Theory: Implications for Nursing Education and Research
Chen, R., Dore, K., Grierson, L. E. M., Hatala, R., & Norman, G. (2014) · Canadian Journal of Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/084456211404600204 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- ORCID
- Sweller, John
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 1995-06
- Volume
- 87
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 319-334
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2140591843
- Semantic Scholar
- cd8931e3d167ef7fabe70f2f7d933ce6c4b8dff4
- Cited by
- 995
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 47 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 63 · 2012: 51
- FWCI
- 7.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.unsw.edu.au
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- cognitive load, split-attention effect, presentation modality, auditory presentation, visual presentation, working memory, cognitive load theory, instructional design, mathematics education
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
