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When learning is just a click away: Does simple user interaction foster deeper understanding of multimedia messages?
Abstract
In 2 experiments, students received 2 presentations of a narrated animation that explained how lightning forms followed by retention and transfer tests. In Experiment 1, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation before a second presentation of the same material at normal speed (part-whole presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations in the reverse order (whole-part presentation). In Experiment 2, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation across 2 presentations (part-part presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations at normal speed without any learner control (whole-whole presentation). These results are consistent with cognitive load theory and a 2-stage theory of mental model construction.
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“The self-pacing effect was reported by Mayer and Chandler (2001), who found that it was beneficial to give learners control over the pace of an instructional animation, probably because it helps them deal with the transient nature of this information.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler (2001)
In the citing paper
“Experiment 2 employed a learning material on lightning formation that has been widely used in prior studies in educational psychology (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Mayer et al., 2003; Bender et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
In the citing paper
“Prior to viewing the video, participants completed a questionnaire assessing prior meteorological knowledge, consisting of eight items rated on an 11-point scale. This questionnaire was designed and used (among others) by Mayer and Chandler (2001) to retrospectively exclude participants scoring higher than six.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
In the citing paper
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
In the citing paper
“Following the original procedure (Mayer and Chandler, 2001), participants who scored above six were excluded from the study.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
In the citing paper
“Evidence for this suggestion comes from multimedia studies reporting a positive effect of learner controlled pacing when the instructional material was segmented (Mayer and Chandler 2001, Experiment 2;Mayer et al. 2003, Experiment 2a and 2b).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler 2001
In the citing paper
“The combination of pacing and segmentation already has shown the promise of such an approach (Mayer and Chandler 2001;Mayer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler 2001
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“These results did not replicate earlier work recommending segmentation of content when using multimedia modalities for learning (Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Parong & Mayer, 2018) and provides an in-depth, theoretically-driven explanation for recent findings that indicate no meaningful differences…”
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“A number of studies (e.g., Schwan & Riemmp, 2004; Mayer & Chandler, 2001) have shown that providing the learner with navigational control can enhance learning.”
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“constructive activities. Curriculum designers preparing course content for computer-based instruction should implement four features specified by Mayer’s (Chandler & Sweller, 1992; Mayer, 1997; Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Sweller, 1999; Sweller & Chandler, 1994) theory that are relevant to their curriculum design whenever…”
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“No effects of pacing were found often for retention or relatively easy performance tasks (Ertelt, Renkl & Spada, 2005; Hasler, Kersten & Sweller, 2007; Mayer & Chandler, 2001), as well as motivation and instructional acceptance (Hasler, Kersten & Sweller, 2007).”
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“This kind of pre-training reduces the mental effort required from students for information processing inside the classroom, and thus decreases their cognitive load (Mayer and Chandler 2001; Mayer and Moreno 2003).”
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“In fact, literature shows that dynamic representations designed according to cognitive principles produce higher learning gains and help learners to create mental models of causal configurations involved in scientific models (Mayer and Chandler 2001).”
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“A number of studies have demonstrated that learner control over pace, content, or representation in a multimedia environment can have benefi cial effects ( Mayer & Chandler , 2001 ; Schwan & Riempp 2004 ; see also Chapter 21 ).”
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“This aligns with the segmenting principle from the CTML, which states that students learn better if information is provided in segments rather than in one continuous unit (Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Mayer et al., 2003).”
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“The introduction of computers as educational tools has led to calls for allowing learners to interact with instructional animations (Domagk, Schwartz, & Plass, 2010; Kriz & Hegarty, 2007; Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Sims, 1997).”
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“Other major theorists working in this area are Mayer and Chandler (Mayer, 2003; Mayer & Chandler, 2001) and Neuman (2009).”
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“Consequently, organizing mental representations of animation tends to overwhelm an individual’s working memory, thus decreasing the instructional efficiency of animation-based learning (Evans and Gibbons 2007; Mayer and Chandler 2001; Mayer and Moreno 2003).”
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PAAS, F. G. W. C., Gerven, P. W. M. V., & Tabbers, H. K. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.023 · Cited by 40
Zhao, X., Chen, L., Jin, Y., & Zhang, X. (2022) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2022.103203 · Cited by 38
Costs and Benefits of More Learner Freedom
Carolan, T. F., Hutchins, S., Wickens, C. D., & Cumming, J. M. (2014) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720813517710 · Cited by 40
Training the use of interactive videos: effects on mastering different tasks
Merkt, M., & Schwan, S. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9287-0 · Cited by 38
“Research on animations pointed to comparable effects of self-paced presentation of information compared to system-paced presentation of information (Hasler et al. 2007; Ho¨ffler and Schwartz 2011; Mayer and Chandler 2001).”
BackgroundPrinciples for Managing Essential Processing in Multimedia Learning
Mayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.025 · Cited by 42
Self-citationCard, J. J., Kuhn, T., Solomon, J., Benner, T., Wingood, G. M., & DiClemente, R. J. (2011) · AIDS Education and Prevention · doi:10.1521/aeap.2011.23.2.159 · Cited by 37
Haslam, C., & Hamilton, R. J. (2009) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690903183741 · Cited by 40
Pastore, R. (2009) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-009-9145-6 · Cited by 43
“Previous research has successfully used this measure and it is considered to be a reliable indicator of mental load (Kalyuga et al. 1999; Mayer and Chandler 2001; Pollock et al. 2002).”
MethodKe, F. (2012) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.07.003 · Cited by 37
Learning from Animated Concept Maps with Concurrent Audio Narration
Nesbit, J. C., & Adesope, O. (2011) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220970903292918 · Cited by 37
“Because other studies of multimedia learning (e.g., Mayer & Chandler, 2001) have detected effects on knowledge transfer in the absence of effects on free recall, complementing the free recall test with a highly reliable measure that assesses only knowledge application may be a more appropriate…”
BackgroundInteractive distance education: a cognitive load perspective
Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-012-9060-4 · Cited by 41
“Pacing may also be supplemented with segmenting materials into smaller sections, especially for learners with lower levels of prior knowledge (Mayer and Chandler, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialClark, R. C., Nguyen, F., & Sweller, J. (2006) · eleed · Cited by 36
Hassanabadi, H., Robatjazi, E. S., & Savoji, A. P. (2011) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.287 · Cited by 35
Multimedia Learning: GuidingVisuospatial Thinking with Instructional Animation
Mayer, R. E. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610448.013 · Cited by 36
Self-citationThe role of working memory in long-term learning: Implications for childhood development
Forsberg, A., Adams, E. J., & Cowan, N. (2021) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2021.02.001 · Cited by 40
van Deursen, M., Reuvers, L., Duits, J. D., de Jong, G., van den Hurk, M. M., & Henssen, D. J. H. A. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-92109-y · Cited by 39
Multimedia Learning with Instructional Video
Fiorella, L. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.050 · Cited by 42
Improving Students Listening Skill through Interactive Multimedia in Indonesia
Arono, A. (2014) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.4304/jltr.5.1.63-69 · Cited by 33
The Flipped Classroom: instructional efficency and impact of achievement and cognitive load levels,
Turan, Z., & Göktaş, Y. (2016) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.20368/1971-8829/1122 · Cited by 39
“This finding may also be explained by the pre-training and sequencing effects of Cognitive Load Theory, which also decrease cognitive load levels (Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).”
ResultA Meta-Analytic Investigation of Objective Learner Control in Web-based Instruction
Landers, R. N., & Reddock, C. M. (2016) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-016-9452-y · Cited by 34
“For example, in one of the cleanest examinations of any learner control dimension in our database, Mayer and Chandler (2001) asked learners to watch an instructional animation but randomly assigned them to either advance the animation frame by frame (high pace control) or to watch the entire…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Mayer, R. E., & Chandler, P.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-06
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 390-397
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2014654802
- Semantic Scholar
- f18d9606e2bb6032447500f651f6b929d14c0a34
- Cited by
- 762
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 54 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 14.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- multimedia learning, learner control, retention, transfer, cognitive load theory, mental model construction, two-stage model, lightning formation
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