When learning is just a click away: Does simple user interaction foster deeper understanding of multimedia messages?
Abstract
In 2 experiments, students received 2 presentations of a narrated animation that explained how lightning forms followed by retention and transfer tests. In Experiment 1, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation before a second presentation of the same material at normal speed (part-whole presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations in the reverse order (whole-part presentation). In Experiment 2, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation across 2 presentations (part-part presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations at normal speed without any learner control (whole-whole presentation). These results are consistent with cognitive load theory and a 2-stage theory of mental model construction.
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The self-pacing effect: giving learners control over the pace of an instructional animation is beneficial, probably because it helps them deal with the transient nature of this information.
“The self-pacing effect was reported by Mayer and Chandler (2001), who found that it was beneficial to give learners control over the pace of an instructional animation, probably because it helps them deal with the transient nature of this information.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler (2001)
Experiment 2 employed a learning material on lightning formation widely used in prior studies.
“Experiment 2 employed a learning material on lightning formation that has been widely used in prior studies in educational psychology (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Mayer et al., 2003; Bender et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
Experiment 2 used a prior meteorological knowledge questionnaire designed by Mayer and Chandler (2001) to exclude participants scoring higher than six.
“Prior to viewing the video, participants completed a questionnaire assessing prior meteorological knowledge, consisting of eight items rated on an 11-point scale. This questionnaire was designed and used (among others) by Mayer and Chandler (2001) to retrospectively exclude participants scoring higher than six.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
The instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials.
“Moreover, the instructional materials used were derived from well-established materials (e.g., Mayer and Chandler, 2001; Pan et al., 2023), and the outcome measures targeted both factual recall and application, which are domains where testing effects typically emerge (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
Experiment 2 participants who scored above six on the prior meteorological knowledge questionnaire were excluded.
“Following the original procedure (Mayer and Chandler, 2001), participants who scored above six were excluded from the study.”
From Testing the testing effect on prolific: when retrieval practice fails to boost learning (2026) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler, 2001
Multimedia studies report a positive effect of learner-controlled pacing when instructional material was segmented.
“Evidence for this suggestion comes from multimedia studies reporting a positive effect of learner controlled pacing when the instructional material was segmented (Mayer and Chandler 2001, Experiment 2;Mayer et al. 2003, Experiment 2a and 2b).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler 2001
The combination of pacing and segmentation has already shown the promise of combining interactivity guidelines.
“The combination of pacing and segmentation already has shown the promise of such an approach (Mayer and Chandler 2001;Mayer et al. 2003).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Mayer and Chandler 2001
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“Whereas research reported inconsistent findings, with some studies showing a benefit of control (Boucheix & Guignard, 2005; Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Schwan & Riempp, 2004), these findings are in line with other studies that found no benefit (for example Adesope & Nesbit, 2012).”
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“In two separate experiments involving multimedia explanations of lightning Mayer & Chandler, 2001, Experiment 1) and how an electric motor works (Mayer, Dow, & Mayer, in press, Experiment 2), students who were able to press a “CONTINUE” button to go on to the next segment performed better on…”
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“For learners with lower levels of prior knowledge, pacing may not be effective on its own and need to be supplemented with segmenting materials into smaller sections ( Mayer and Chandler 2001; Wouters et al. 2007).”
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“In addition, while learning a causeand-effect system from a presentation, user interactivity can be beneficial by allowing the segmentation of the presentation into chunks that will be more easily organized into a mental model (Mayer & Chandler, 2001).”
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“In most segmentation studies, pauses between the segments are made, which gives students time to process the information presented in the previous segment without having to attend to new incoming information (Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).”
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Self-citationEffects of observing the instructor draw diagrams on learning from multimedia messages.
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“In an exemplary study by Mayer and Chandler (2001), students learned about the process of lightning formation from either a segmented or an unsegmented lesson.”
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“In these studies, the segments were distinguished by inserting pauses between them (Boucheix & Guignard 2005; Hasler et al. 2007; Mayer & Chandler 2001; Mayer et al. 2003; Moreno 2007; Spanjers et al., 2010).”
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“Previous research (e.g., Mayer & Chandler, 2001), has found segmenting to be effective, but the findings of Spanjers et al. (this issue) suggest that perhaps only students with low levels of prior knowledge benefit most from this strategy.”
MethodSelf-citationInteractivity in Video-based Models
Wouters, P., Tabbers, H. K., & Paas, F. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9045-4 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“The combination of pacing and segmentation already has shown the promise of such an approach ( Mayer and Chandler 2001; Mayer et al. 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialMayer, R. E., & Pilegard, C. (2014) · The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.016 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Significant Role of Multimedia in Motivating EFL Learners’ Interest in English Language Learning
Gilakjani, A. P. (2012) · International Journal of Modern Education and Computer Science · doi:10.5815/ijmecs.2012.04.08 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Impact of reducing intrinsic cognitive load on learning in a mathematical domain
Ayres, P. (2006) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1245 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Virtual interactive e‐learning application: An evaluation of the student satisfaction
Violante, M. G., & Vezzetti, E. (2013) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.21580 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Mayer, R. E. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_31 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Self-citationLusk, D. L., Evans, A. D., Jeffrey, T. R., Palmer, K. R., Wikstrom, C. S., & Doolittle, P. E. (2009) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00848.x · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“This finding is important given that previous multimedia research provided only partial support for segmentation (see Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Mayer et al, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialEvidence for effective uses of dynamic visualisations in science curriculum materials
McElhaney, K. W., Chang, H., Chiu, J. L., & Linn, M. C. (2014) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2014.984506 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Effects of segmenting, signalling, and weeding on learning from educational video
Ibrahim, M. M., Antonenko, P., Greenwood, C., & Wheeler, D. (2011) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2011.585993 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“1999 ; Mayer and Chandler 2001 ; Mayer and Moreno 2003 ).”
BackgroundSpanjers, I. A. E., van Gog, T., Wouters, P., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.024 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Computer animations in medical education: a critical literature review
Ruiz, J. G., Cook, D. A., & Levinson, A. J. (2009) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03429.x · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Austin, K. A. (2009) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.06.017 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“Mayer and Chandler (2001) reported that materials without redundancy fostered deeper understanding of the scientific material, as measured by a content transfer test based on the same learning rubric as previous research.”
The Cognitive Limits of Animated Maps
Harrower, M. (2007) · Cartographica The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization · doi:10.3138/carto.42.4.349 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Hasler and others (2006) have demonstrated that user control can reduce learners’ cognitive load with animations, confirming the benefits of interactivity described in earlier studies (Lowe 2004; Mayer and Chandler 2001 ).”
BackgroundCognitive Load Theory: New Directions and Challenges
Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2882 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Applying the Science of Learning to Multimedia Instruction
Mayer, R. E. (2011) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-387691-1.00003-x · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Self-citationFacilitating Understanding of Movements in Dynamic Visualizations: an Embodied Perspective
de Koning, B. B., & Tabbers, H. K. (2011) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9173-8 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Can the cognitive load approach make instructional animations more effective?
Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1351 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
The Expertise Reversal Principle in Multimedia Learning
Kalyuga, S. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.028 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Sung, E., & Mayer, R. E. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.10.022 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationBoucheix, J., & Guignard, H. (2005) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/bf03173563 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“Narayanan and Hegarty (1998); Hegarty, Narayanan, and Freitas (2002) have shown that to understand a complex mechanical system from an external static illustration, the learner focuses information processing on the mental simulation of a movement.”
BackgroundThe Effect of Learning Styles on Academic Achievement in Different Forms of Teaching
Cimermanová, I. (2018) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.12973/iji.2018.11316a · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Various studies report the positive effect of interaction on the increase in the educational effectiveness and promotes deeper learning (Mayer & Chandler, 2001; York & Richardson, 2012; Tsai, 2011).”
BackgroundLi, Q., & Baker, R. B. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.005 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Web-Based Learning Environment: A Theory-Based Design Process for Development and Evaluation
Nam, C. S., & Smith‐Jackson, T. L. (2007) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/200 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“Transfer Test: Transfer test questions were developed on the basis of Mayer & Chandler (2001) and McFeeters (2003).”
MethodLearner control in animated multimedia instructions
Tabbers, H. K., & de Koeijer, B. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9119-4 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“With the same line of reasoning as in Mayer and Chandler (2001), Mayer and his colleagues predicted that more cognitive resources would become available for deeper understanding and thus better transfer scores if learners could interact with the multimedia lesson.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPrior Knowledge Principle in Multimedia Learning
Kalyuga, S. (2005) · The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.022 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Crutzen, R., Cyr, D., & de Vries, N. K. (2012) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1922 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Effects of pacing and cognitive style across dynamic and non-dynamic representations
Höffler, T., & Schwartz, R. N. (2011) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.03.012 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
A meta-analytic investigation of learner control: Old findings and new directions.
Kraiger, K., & Jerden, E. L. (2007) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11582-004 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Hochberg, K., Becker, S., Louis, M., Klein, P., & Kühn, J. (2020) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-020-09816-w · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Singh, A., Marcus, N., & Ayres, P. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2885 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
The Effect of Multimodal Learning Models on Language Teaching and Learning
Gilakjani, A. P., Ismail, H. N., & Ahmadi, S. M. (2011) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.4304/tpls.1.10.1321-1327 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Animation is more effective if it is accompanied by narration, which makes use of both the auditory and visual channels (Mayer & Chandler, 2001).”
BackgroundThe crucial role of cognitive processes in the design of dynamic visualizations
Chandler, P. (2004) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.06.009 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“As with the Mayer and Chandler (2001) studies, the opportunity to control and interact simply with dynamic representations allowed for the more rapid acquisition of knowledge by controlling the flow of instructional information. The authors concluded that as long as interactive activities do not over burden cognitive…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMaking the abstract concrete: Visualizing mathematical solution procedures
Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P. H., & Catrambone, R. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.009 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Interactivity seems to be a value in its own right and produces positive results rather consistently (Betrancourt & Tversky, 2000; Ferguson & Hegarty, 1995; Gonzales, 1996; Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Tversky, Bauer Morrison, & Betrancourt, 2002).”
BackgroundBradford, G. (2011) · Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.05.001 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
The instructor's gaze guidance in video lectures improves learning
Wang, H., Pi, Z., & Hu, W. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12309 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Naumann, J., Richter, T., Christmann, U., & Groeben, N. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.08.007 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“In this approach, rather than confronting learners with all information at once and then having them study different parts, discrete parts of information are presented first, a sequence that has proven to be superior to the first-whole-then-parts sequence (Mayer & Chandler, 2001).”
BackgroundHow Inspecting a Picture Affects Processing of Text in Multimedia Learning
Eitel, A., Scheiter, K., & Schüler, A. (2013) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2922 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Paas, F., Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Wouters, P. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1349 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Several studies have tried to manage the high extraneous load imposed by the continuous flow of transient information elements with specific strategies such as segmenting, cueing and tracing (e.g. Betrancourt, 2005; Marcus, KhengJoo, Beng-Fei, & Ayres, 2006; Mayer & Chandler, 2001).”
BackgroundMethod
- Authors
- Mayer, R. E., & Chandler, P.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-06
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 390-397
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2014654802
- Semantic Scholar
- f18d9606e2bb6032447500f651f6b929d14c0a34
- Cited by
- 762
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 54 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 14.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- multimedia learning, learner control, retention, transfer, cognitive load theory, mental model construction, two-stage model, lightning formation
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