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Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
In the citing paper
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
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Items 901–1,000 of 1,032
Anxiety mediates the relationship between multidimensional perfectionism and insomnia disorder
Akram, U., Ellis, J. G., Myachykov, A., Chapman, A. J., & Barclay, N. L. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.042 · Cited by 32
“…the mediating role of anxiety and/or depression in the insomnia-perfectionism relationship amongst a sample meeting diagnostic criteria for insomnia disorder by assessing all facets of perfectionism from two multidimensional perfectionism scales (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
Smith, M. M., Sherry, S., Saklofske, D. H., & Mushqaush, A. R. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.059 · Cited by 38
“…concerns comprise a constellation of traits involving the tendency to perceive others as demanding perfection (socially prescribed perfectionism; Hewitt & Flett, 1991), have overly negative reactions to perceived failures (concerns over mistakes; Frost et al., 1990), and doubts about…”
BackgroundThe relationship between perfectionism and mental illness stigma
Shannon, A., Goldberg, J. O., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.022 · Cited by 30
“Furthermore, participants who scored highly in terms of self-oriented perfectionism were expected to have more self-stigma as they hold themselves to excessively high standards and admitting that they are experiencing psychological distress may violate these standards (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationLuthar, S. S., & Kumar, N. L. (2018) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89842-1_23 · Cited by 34
Kang, M., Lee, J., & Lee, A.-R. (2019) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-019-09609-w · Cited by 37
Reducing Levels of Perfectionism in Gifted and Talented Youth Through a Mindfulness Intervention
Olton-Weber, S. R., Hess, R. S., & Ritchotte, J. A. (2020) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986220953392 · Cited by 30
“This early work by Hewitt and Flett (1991) has continued as a framework for understanding different manifestations of perfectionism including (a) self-oriented perfectionism (SOP), described as when individuals set unrealistic and excessively high goals and standards for themselves; (b)…”
BackgroundMethodPerfectionism, depression and anxiety in chronic fatigue syndrome: A systematic review
Wright, A., Fisher, P., Baker, N., O’Rourke, L., & Cherry, M. G. (2020) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110322 · Cited by 39
Dobos, B., Piko, B. F., & Mellor, D. J. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12718 · Cited by 38
“…while Frost et al. (1990) distinguished six dimensions (Concern over Mistakes, Parental Criticism, Parental Expectations, Doubts about Actions, Organization and Personal Standards), Hewitt and Flett (1991) described three separate dimensions (Self-oriented; Socially-prescribed and Otheroriented).”
BackgroundCerolini, S., Zagaria, A., Vacca, M., Spinhoven, P., Violani, C., & Lombardo, C. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12120474 · Cited by 30
Wimberley, T. E., & Stasio, M. J. (2012) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9462-7 · Cited by 39
Eddington, K. M. (2014) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2013.781740 · Cited by 30
Are we having fun yet? Savoring, Type A behavior, and vacation enjoyment
Smith, J. L., & Bryant, F. B. (2013) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v3i1.1 · Cited by 30
“Future work might also include direct measures of perfectionism (e.g., Hewitt & Flett, 1991), in order to distinguish high personal standards, particularly in social contexts, from the need for speed per se as a determinant of impatience.”
BackgroundThe relationship of temperament to multidimensional perfectionism trait
Kobori, O., Yamagata, S., & Kijima, N. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.04.003 · Cited by 34
“For example, SOP was associated with depression (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1996), suicidal ideation (Hewitt, Flett, & Weber, 1994; Hewitt, Newton, Flett, & Callander, 1997; Hamilton & Schweitzer, 2000), and anorexic symptoms (Cockell et al., 2002; Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodMore evidence for four perfectionism subgroups
Sironic, A., & Reeve, R. A. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.003 · Cited by 32
Nealis, L. J., Sherry, S., Lee‐Baggley, D., Stewart, S. H., & Macneil, M. A. (2016) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-016-9537-y · Cited by 30
“This multi-trait conceptualization advances single-trait models (e.g., Hewitt and Flett 1991; Hill et al. 2004) that have contributed in very important ways to theory and research, but tend to underperform in predictive contexts (Haring et al. 2003; Mackinnon et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDelaying Things and Feeling Bad About It? A Norm-Based Approach to Procrastination
Giguère, B., Sirois, F. M., & Vaswani, M. (2016) · Procrastination, Health, and Well-Being · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802862-9.00009-8 · Cited by 30
Perfectionism and Perfectionistic Self-Presentation in Social Anxiety
Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394427-6.00007-8 · Cited by 30
Self-citationStoeber, J., & Corr, P. J. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.041 · Cited by 30
“A sample of university students completed the RST-PQ and a measure of multidimensional perfectionism differentiating three forms of perfectionism: self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
Compulsive exercise as a mediator between clinical perfectionism and eating pathology
Egan, S. J., Bodill, K., Watson, H. J., Valentine, E., Shu, C. Y., & Hagger, M. S. (2016) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.11.001 · Cited by 37
“Perfectionism has also been measured on the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; HMPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) which are linked to eating pathology (Egan et al., 2011).”
MethodIs socially prescribed perfectionism veridical? A new take on the stressfulness of perfectionism
Smith, M. M., Speth, T. A., Sherry, S., Saklofske, D. H., Stewart, S. H., & Głowacka, M. D. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.031 · Cited by 30
Trait shyness, actual-ought self-discrepancy and discomfort in social interaction
Amico, K. R., Bruch, M. A., Haase, R. F., & Sturmer, P. J. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.06.008 · Cited by 30
Self-Regulation and Distress in Clinical Psychology
Endler, N. S., & Kocovski, N. L. (2000) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50046-9 · Cited by 31
Associations between Perfectionism, Mood, and Fatigue in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Blenkiron, P., Edwards, R., & LYNCH, S. (1999) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199909000-00006 · Cited by 30
Shin, J., Lee, H. J., Park, H., Hong, Y., Song, Y. K., Yoon, D. U., & Oh, S. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01369-y · Cited by 31
“MPS regards perfectionism as a multi-dimensional construct that includes personal and social aspects [30].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn Etiological Model of Perfectionism
Maloney, G. K., Egan, S. J., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094757 · Cited by 34
“Flett and colleagues [4] developed the only etiological model of perfectionism to date to explain the onset of self-oriented perfectionism (expecting perfection of oneself), socially-prescribed perfectionism (others expecting perfection of the individual) and other-oriented perfectionism (expecting others to be perfec…”
BackgroundThe Role of Perfectionism in Student Suicide: Three Case Studies from the UK
Bell, J., Stanley, N., Mallon, S. D., & Manthorpe, J. (2010) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.2190/om.61.3.e · Cited by 32
“Perfectionism in our study was not measured and quantified with the type objective assessment tools used in previous psychological research (e.g., Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) where problems regarding validity have been identified.”
BackgroundMethodFurman, C. R., Luo, S., & Pond, R. S. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.052 · Cited by 28
“Research has found that those with high levels of OOP often place blame on others, are insensitive to others' feelings and needs, and harbor resentful feelings toward others (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Kim et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodLevine, S. L., Werner, K. M., Capaldi, J., & Milyavskaya, M. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.08.005 · Cited by 30
The Bright and Dark Aspects of Grit in the Pursuit of Success
Houston, J. M., Luchner, A. F., Davidson, A. J., Gonzalez, J. S., Steigerwald, N., & Leftwich, C. (2020) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294120907316 · Cited by 28
“However, before considering the relationship between grit and perfectionism, it is important to recognize that perfectionism is often conceptualized as a multidimensional construct containing both personal and social dimensions (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism Profiles and Motivation to Exercise Based on Self-Determination Theory
Vicent, M., Sanmartín, R., Rubio, C. O. V., & García-Fernández, J. M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17093206 · Cited by 36
“The Frost’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS) [34] and the Hewitt’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS) [35] were employed.”
MethodDamian, L. E., Negru‐Subtirica, O., Pop, E. I., & Stoeber, J. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211012902 · Cited by 29
“…disposition of perfectionism, theory and research have so far supported the proposition that the three forms of perfectionism differentiated by Hewitt and Flett (1991)–self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism– show both similarities and differences in their…”
BackgroundInfluentialSeong, H., & Chang, E. (2021) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102045 · Cited by 37
Molnar, D. S., Thai, S., Blackburn, M., Zinga, D., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13855 · Cited by 32
Self-citationWatson, P. J., Varnell, S. P., & Morris, R. J. (1999) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.2190/md51-7p8n-weye-9h3x · Cited by 29
“As one of three MPS dimensions, Self-Oriented Perfectionism reflects “a striving to attain perfection in one’s endeavors as well as striving to avoid failures” [17, p. 457].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBasirion, Z., Majid, R. A., & Jelas, Z. M. (2014) · Asian Social Science · doi:10.5539/ass.v10n4p8 · Cited by 30
“The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS: Hewitt & Flett, 1991) consists of 45 self-report items using 7-point Likert-type scale.”
MethodMichou, M., & Costarelli, V. (2011) · Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness · doi:10.1016/s1728-869x(12)60006-9 · Cited by 28
Multidimensional Sexual Perfectionism and Female Sexual Function: A Longitudinal Investigation
Stoeber, J., & Harvey, L. N. (2016) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0721-7 · Cited by 33
“According to Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) influential model of multidimensional perfectionism, perfectionism has personal and interpersonal aspects.”
BackgroundEgan, S. J., Kane, R. T., Winton, K., Eliot, C., & McEvoy, P. M. (2017) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2017.06.006 · Cited by 38
“Perfectionism has typically been measured with Frost and colleagues' Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990) and Hewitt and Flett's Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
MethodStudents’ Need Satisfaction Profiles: Similarity and Change over the Course of a University Semester
Gillet, N., Morin, A. J. S., Huyghebaert‐Zouaghi, T., Alibran, É., Barrault, S., & Vanhove-Meriaux, C. (2019) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12227 · Cited by 31
“Self-oriented perfectionists set high goals for themselves and invest substantial efforts in their attempts to achieve those goals (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialExploring the role of external criticism in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: A narrative review
Pace, S. M., Thwaites, R., & Freeston, M. H. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.01.007 · Cited by 29
Eklund, R. C., & DeFreese, J. D. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119568124.ch60 · Cited by 32
Five-Factor Model of Personality
Sullivan, L. E. (2009) · The SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.4135/9781412972024.n1028 · Cited by 29
Egan, S. J., Johnson, C., Wade, T. D., Carlbring, P., Raghav, S., & Shafran, R. (2024) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2024.100711 · Cited by 32
“Perfec-tionism has been defined as a multidimensional construct, as measured with the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990; HMPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991).”
MethodOcampo, A. C., Gu, J., Li, Q., Koseoglu, G., Wang, L., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2024) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2822 · Cited by 32
Milyavskaya, M., Harvey, B., Koestner, R., Powers, T. A., Rosenbaum, J., Ianakieva, I., & Prior, A. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.2.124 · Cited by 32
Personality Variables and Eating Pathology
Wagner, A. F., & Vitousek, K. M. (2018) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2018.10.012 · Cited by 26
Piotrowski, K. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01864 · Cited by 34
“This tendency is often accompanied by subordinating self-evaluation to the achievement of these standards, fear of failure, and self-criticism (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt and Flett, 1991; Hewitt et al., 2017).”
BackgroundThe Psychometric Properties of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale – Brief
Woodfin, V. I., Binder, P., & Molde, H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01860 · Cited by 44
Stănculescu, E., Roskam, I., Mikolajczak, M., Muntean, A., & Gurza, A. (2020) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20384 · Cited by 30
“Perfectionism was measured with the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale (PSPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991), a 23-item measure of perfectionism style.”
MethodLowe, C., & Wuthrich, V. M. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-020-01099-x · Cited by 31
Etherson, M. E., Smith, M. M., Hill, A. P., Sherry, S., Curran, T., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111559 · Cited by 28
Self-citationMushquash, A. R., & Sherry, S. (2013) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.02.002 · Cited by 28
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) argued socially prescribed perfectionism (i.”
BackgroundSherry, S., Nealis, L. J., Macneil, M. A., Stewart, S. H., Sherry, D. L., & Smith, M. M. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.01.002 · Cited by 28
Chan, C. K. Y., & Owens, R. G. (2005) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/14768320500105312 · Cited by 28
“Hitherto, conceptualisations of perfectionism have been broadly multidimensional (Frost, Marten, Lahart & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991b), with numerous measures developed to assess different aspects.”
BackgroundHill, A. P., Hall, H., & Appleton, P. R. (2009) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.11.001 · Cited by 28
“The findings of research which has examined the psychometric 22 properties of the subscale have supported the validity and reliability of measure (α = 23 .89 and test-retest reliability r = .88; Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 2004).”
Lambert, S. F., Robinson, W. L., & Ialongo, N. S. (2013) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9814-0 · Cited by 31
“Because it is possible for individuals to change standards or expectations for their own behavior, self-oriented beliefs may be experienced as more controllable (Hewitt and Flett 1991) and therefore pose less risk for depression.”
InfluentialMoser, J. S., Slane, J. D., Burt, S. A., & Klump, K. L. (2011) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20890 · Cited by 28
“Given disagreements surrounding the measurement of perfectionism,[6,10,52] future investigations should consider employing multiple perfectionism scales.”
BackgroundMay, S. A., & Kinnison, T. (2015) · Veterinary Record · doi:10.1136/vr.103109 · Cited by 29
“This, together with their training, can easily lead to them believing that they should be able to cure every animal presented to them, and they feel personally responsible for any failure to succeed (Hewitt and Flett 1991).”
BackgroundLowndes, T. A., Egan, S. J., & McEvoy, P. M. (2018) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2018.1490810 · Cited by 34
“Perfectionism has typically been measured through the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; HMPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
MethodHaspolat, N. K., & Yalçın, İ. (2023) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23012 · Cited by 28
Kim, B., & Lee, D. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-07234-4 · Cited by 35
“To bridge the research gaps, this paper employs the multidimensional perfectionism framework (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), the cognitive-behavioral model of perfectionism (Shafran et al., 2002), the job demands-resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), the conservation of resources (COR) theory…”
Influential“It Has to be Perfect!”: The Development of Perfectionism and the Family System
Rasmussen, K. E., & Troilo, J. (2016) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12140 · Cited by 34
Chang, E., Seong, H., & Lee, S. M. (2020) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-020-09633-1 · Cited by 33
Lee, G., Park, T. I., & Cho, H. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12114729 · Cited by 33
“The fear of failing to meet the demands triggers psychopathology such as depression and anxiety, which hinder their performance [25] and interpersonal relationships [5], all of which appear to make it difficult to adapt to college [26].”
BackgroundA Systematic Review on the Psychological Effects of Perfectionism and Accompanying Treatment
Patterson, H., Firebaugh, C. M., Zolnikov, T. R., Wardlow, R., Morgan, S. M., & Gordon, B. R. (2021) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2021.121001 · Cited by 27
“Socially prescribed per-fectionism is the belief that others hold them to standards that cannot be reasonable and consistently met (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialPozza, A., Starčević, V., Ferretti, F., Pedani, C., Crispino, R., Governi, G., Luchi, S., Gallorini, A., Löchner, C., & Coluccia, A. (2021) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000287 · Cited by 28
Rnic, K., Hewitt, P. L., Chen, C., Jopling, E. N., LeMoult, J., & Flett, G. L. (2021) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2021.40.4.277 · Cited by 27
Self-citationLin, S.-Y., Hirst, G., Wu, C., Lee, C., Wu, W., & Chang, C.-C. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113341 · Cited by 34
Perfectionism and social goals: What do perfectionists want to achieve in social situations?
Shim, S. S., & Fletcher, K. L. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.002 · Cited by 28
Characteristics of doctoral students who commit citation errors
Waytowich, V. L., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Jiao, Q. G. (2006) · Library Review · doi:10.1108/00242530610655993 · Cited by 30
Çağlar, E., Bilgili, N., Karaca, A., Ayaz, S., & Aşçı, F. H. (2010) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/s1138741600002407 · Cited by 26
“In general, previous studies on perfectionism focused on the relationship between social anxiety and perfectionism (e.g. Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Laurenti, Bruch, & Haase, 2008), and not on physique related anxiety.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Treatment of Perfectionism within the Eating Disorders: A Pilot Study
Goldstein, M., Peters, L., Thornton, C. E., & Touyz, S. W. (2014) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2281 · Cited by 28
Personal and Familial Aspects of Perfectionism in Latino/a Students
Ortega, N., Wang, K. T., Slaney, R. B., Hayes, J. A., & Morales, A. (2013) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000012473166 · Cited by 26
“The APS-R subscales have been correlated with two Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) displaying convergent validity (Slaney et al., 2001; Suddarth & Slaney, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodMandel, T., Dunkley, D. M., & Starrs, C. J. (2018) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-018-9673-7 · Cited by 30
Dimensions of Perfectionism Mediate the Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Coping
Gong, X., Fletcher, K. L., & Bolin, J. H. (2015) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/jcad.12024 · Cited by 29
“According to Hu and Bentler (1999) and Kline (2005), CFI > .”
BackgroundModerating the Role of Self-Compassion in the Relationship between Perfectionism and Depression
Abdollahi, A., Allen, K. A., & Taheri, A. (2020) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-020-00346-3 · Cited by 27
García-Villamisar, D. A., Dattilo, J., & Armentia, A. D. P. (2011) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2012.635569 · Cited by 28
“The 45-item Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) assesses three dimensions of perfectionism: a) Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP)—intrapersonal component that involves exacting standards for oneself and stringently evaluating one’s own behavior, b) Social Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP)—interpers…”
MethodInfluentialBoone, L., & Soenens, B. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.11.005 · Cited by 34
“In the past few decades, a number of different multidimensional models of perfectionism have been developed, themost important ones being the models developed by Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990) and by Hewitt and Flett (1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism and Personality Disorders as Predictors of Symptoms and Interpersonal Problems
Dimaggio, G., Lysaker, P. H., Calarco, T., Pedone, R., Marsigli, N., Riccardi, I., Sabatelli, B., Carcione, A., & Paviglianiti, A. (2015) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2015.69.3.317 · Cited by 29
Locander, D. A., Weinberg, F. J., Mulki, J. P., & Locander, W. B. (2015) · The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/10696679.2015.1049680 · Cited by 27
“For those with high concern over mistakes, failure is to be avoided at all costs, as it violates the all-or-none thinking that these individuals adopt to reinforce their ideal self-schema (Hewitt and Flett 1991).”
BackgroundSocial Anxiety Disorder and Its Relationship to Perfectionism
Frost, R. O., Glossner, K., & Maxner, S. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-375096-9.00005-5 · Cited by 27
Das, R. (2017) · European Journal of Cultural Studies · doi:10.1177/1367549417722094 · Cited by 26
“Evidence exists from within psychology that discourses of idealized mothering and motherhood have a role to play in the emotional well-being of mothers (Hewitt and Flett, 1991; Rizzo et al., 2013; Stoeber and Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundDonahue, J. M., Reilly, E. E., Anderson, L. M., Scharmer, C., & Anderson, D. A. (2018) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000000895 · Cited by 31
McCabe, M. P., Tatangelo, G. L., Watson, B. N., Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz, M., Rodgers, R. F., Aimé, A., Mellor, D. J., Granero‐Gallegos, A., Strodl, E. S., Caltabiano, M. L., et al. (2019) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.10.001 · Cited by 26
The relationship between perfectionism and symptoms of depression in medical school applicants
Bußenius, L., & Harendza, S. (2019) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-019-1823-4 · Cited by 37
Robinson, A. D., Moscardini, E. H., Tucker, R. P., & Calamia, M. R. (2021) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2021.1922108 · Cited by 26
“Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundAshraf, M. A., Sahar, N.-E., Kamran, M., & Alam, J. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13070537 · Cited by 50
“87 for socially prescribed perfectionism [74].”
Typology of Perfectionism in a Group of Mathematically Gifted Czech Adolescents Over One Decade
Portešová, Š., & Urbánek, T. (2013) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431613487603 · Cited by 26
“FMPS stands for the Frost et al.’s (1990) scale and HMPS stands for the scale developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism and therapeutic alliance: a review of the clinical research
Miller, R., Hilsenroth, M. J., & Hewitt, P. L. (2017) · Research in Psychotherapy Psychopathology Process and Outcome · doi:10.4081/ripppo.2017.264 · Cited by 26
“…by unrealistic expectations for oneself and intense self-criticism when one does not attain perfection, and socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1990, 1991a, 1991b), characterized by the perception that others have unrealistic expectations that one has to meet in order to be…”
BackgroundSelf-citationYang, H., Yang, Y., Xu, L., et al. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.05.005 · Cited by 26
“All these studies investigated general perfectionismwhich is defined as a general disposition affecting people across various domains of life (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundAshby, J. S., & Gnilka, P. B. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.07.012 · Cited by 27
“…there are differing definitions, conceptualizations, and measures of perfectionism (e.g., Broman-Fulks, Hill, & Green, 2008; Flett et al., 2016; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001; Smith, Saklofske, Stoeber, & Sherry, 2016), a number of factor analytic studies…”
Pacewicz, C. E., Gotwals, J. K., & Blanton, J. E. (2017) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.12.008 · Cited by 26
Donachie, T. C., Hill, A. P., & Hall, H. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.04.002 · Cited by 26
Perfectionism and PERMA: The benefits of otheroriented perfectionism
Birch, H. A., Riby, L. M., & McGann, D. (2019) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v9i1.749 · Cited by 30
“Best distinguished by whom the perfectionistic behaviour is directed at/attributed to, SOP is characterised by perfectionistic behaviour directed towards the self, such as setting high standards for oneself (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe mediating effects of misinterpretation of intrusive thoughts on obsessive-compulsive symptoms
Pleva, J., & Wade, T. D. (2005) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.11.003 · Cited by 27
“Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).”
BackgroundNew Frontiers in the Treatment of Perfectionism
Shafran, R., Coughtrey, A. E., & Kothari, R. (2016) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2016.9.2.156 · Cited by 31
Smith, M. M., Sherry, S., Mushquash, A. R., Saklofske, D. H., Gautreau, C. M., & Nealis, L. J. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.10.001 · Cited by 26
“The perfectionism social disconnection model Hewitt and Flett (1991) conceptualized perfectionism as a multidimensional personality trait composed of three dimensions: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2017.10.001 0092-6566/ 2017 Elsevier Inc.”
BackgroundInfluentialDoes Perfectionism Lead to Well-Being? The Role of Flow and Personality Traits
Kamushadze, T., Martskvishvili, K., Mestvirishvili, M., & Odilavadze, M. (2021) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.1987 · Cited by 28
Vekas, E. J., & Wade, T. D. (2017) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12152 · Cited by 25
Exploring and Evaluating the Two-Factor Model of Perfectionism in Sport
Hill, A. P., Madigan, D. J., Curran, T., Jowett, G. E., & Rumbold, J. L. (2024) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/07342829241231149 · Cited by 27
“As described by Hewitt and Flett (1991), other-oriented perfectionism involves unrealistic standards for signi fi cant others, an emphasis on other people being perfect, and stringent evaluations of others ’ performance.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
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