The DOI matches its Crossref record; 1 of the 1 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
In the citing paper
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
Citations
Cites
The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 1,032
van Mens, K., de Schepper, C., Wijnen, B. F. M., Koldijk, S., Schnack, H. G., de Looff, P. C., Lokkerbol, J., Wetherall, K., Cleare, S., O'Connor, D. B., et al. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.081 · Cited by 73
“…2007), defeat (Gilbert and Allan, 1998), entrapment (Gilbert and Allan, 1998), social support (Mitchell et al., 2003) socially prescribed or social perfectionism (Hewitt and Flett, 1991), interpersonal needs (Van Orden, Cukrowicz, Witte, and Joiner, 2012) and goal activation (Wrosch et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMolnar, D. S., Sadava, S. W., Flett, G. L., & Colautti, J. (2011) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.630466 · Cited by 86
“While an overwhelming amount of evidence supports Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) contention that SPP is maladaptive (e.g., O’Connor & Sheehy, 2000), the findings concerning SOP tend to be mixed, with some demonstrating that it is related to desirable attributes and outcomes and others showing that it is related to undesira…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationAshby, J. S., Dickinson, W. L., Gnilka, P. B., & Noble, C. L. (2011) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00070.x · Cited by 76
Boone, L., Soenens, B., & Braet, C. (2011) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2011.30.10.1043 · Cited by 87
Disordered eating attitudes in relation to body image and emotional intelligence in young women
Costarelli, V., Demerzi, M., & Stamou, D. (2009) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.2009.00949.x · Cited by 75
Enviousness and its relationship to maladjustment and psychopathology
Gold, B. T. (1996) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(96)00081-5 · Cited by 74
The role of perfectionism in body dissatisfaction
Wade, T. D., & Tiggemann, M. (2013) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/2050-2974-1-2 · Cited by 99
“Hewitt PL, Flett GL: Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: conceptualization, assessment and association with psychopathology.”
BackgroundDunkley, D. M., Lewkowski, M. D., Lee, I. A., Preacher, K. J., Zuroff, D. C., Berg, J.-L., Foley, J. E., Myhr, G., & Westreich, R. (2016) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2016.06.001 · Cited by 89
O’Connor, K. P., Todorov, C., Robillard, S., Borgeat, F., & Brault, M. (1999) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674379904400108 · Cited by 73
Randolph, J. J., & Dykman, B. M. (1998) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1018761229824 · Cited by 75
Never good enough: The relation between the impostor phenomenon and multidimensional perfectionism
Pannhausen, S., Klug, K., & Rohrmann, S. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00613-7 · Cited by 108
Longitudinal study on perfectionism and sleep disturbance
de Azevedo, M. H. P., Bos, S. C., Soares, M. J., Marques, M., Pereira, A. T., Maia, B., Gomes, A. A., & Macedo, A. (2010) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/15622970903304467 · Cited by 73
Validating Antonovsky's sense of Coherence scale
Flannery, R. B., Perry, J. C., Penk, W. E., & Flannery, G. J. (1994) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199407)50:4 · Cited by 121
Conceptions of Perfectionism and Interpersonal Problems
Slaney, R. B., Pincus, A. L., Uliaszek, A. A., & Wang, K. T. (2006) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191105284878 · Cited by 74
Web-based cognitive-behavioral therapy for perfectionism: A randomized controlled trial
Arpin-Cribbie, C., Irvine, J., & Ritvo, P. (2012) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2011.637242 · Cited by 72
“…more often associated with negative outcomes such as failure, guilt, and shame, and to serious pathologies like depression, alcoholism, anxiety, and personality disorders (Flett, Hewitt, Garshowitz, & Martin, 1997; Hayward & Arthur, 1998; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Hewitt, Mittelstaedt, & Flett, 1990).”
BackgroundMethodThe influence of personality on HE students’ confidence in their academic abilities
Pulford, B. D., & Sohal, H. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.05.010 · Cited by 72
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) define perfectionism as the tendency to engage in ‘setting unrealistic standards and trying to attain these standards, selective attention to and overgeneralization of failure, stringent self-evaluations, and all or none thinking where only total success or total failure…”
BackgroundInfluentialAnorexia nervosa, perfectionism, and dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4)
Bachner‐Melman, R., Lerer, E., Zohar, A. H., Kremer, I., Elizur, Y., Nemanov, L., Golan, M., Blank, S., Gritsenko, I., & Ebstein, R. P. (2007) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30505 · Cited by 73
Nordin‐Bates, S. M., Cumming, J., Aways, D., & Sharp, L. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.5.1.58 · Cited by 91
Machiavellianism, trait perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation
Sherry, S., Hewitt, P. L., Avi Besser, A., Flett, G. L., & Klein, C. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.09.010 · Cited by 73
“Means and standard deviations approximated earlier studies that used the MACH-IV (McHos-key, 2001a), MPS (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), and PSPS (Hewitt et al., 2003) in university samples (see Table 1).”
InfluentialSelf-citationSassaroli, S., Gallucci, M., & Ruggiero, G. M. (2008) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.11.005 · Cited by 71
Hankin, B. L., Roberts, J. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1997) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1021808308041 · Cited by 75
“It is important to point out that, in contrast to previous findings with adult samples ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991a, 1991b ), SOP was correlated negatively with depressive symptoms in our sample.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLunn, J., Greene, D., Callaghan, T., & Egan, S. J. (2023) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2023.2211736 · Cited by 75
Chang, E. C., Ivezaj, V., Downey, C. A., Kashima, Y., & Morady, A. R. (2007) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.06.003 · Cited by 76
“The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990) and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991), while similar in name, posit perfectionism to be comprised of quite different dimensions.”
BackgroundA cross-cultural study of predictors of self-handicapping in university students
Pulford, B. D., Johnson, A. M., & Awaida, M. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.02.008 · Cited by 70
“The concept has been identified as a multidimensional construct, both personal and social, consisting of Self-orientated Perfectionism, Socially-prescribed Perfectionism, and Other-orientated Perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe relationship between perfectionism and self-efficacy
Hart, B., Gilner, F. H., Handal, P. J., & Gfeller, J. D. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00116-5 · Cited by 70
Resilience Mediates the Relations Between Perfectionism and College Student Distress
Klibert, J., Lamis, D. A., Collins, W., Smalley, K. B., Warren, J. C., Yancey, C. T., & Winterowd, C. (2014) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00132.x · Cited by 83
“According to Hewitt and Flett (2002), a problematic feature associated with perfectionism is an unrealistic approach to stress management.”
BackgroundPerfectionism and neuroticism in psychiatric patients and college students
Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Blankstein, K. R. (1991) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(91)90113-p · Cited by 68
Self-citationPerfectionism is adaptive and maladaptive, but what's the combined effect?
Stoeber, J., Madigan, D. J., & Gonidis, L. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.109846 · Cited by 75
Petisco, C., Sánchez-Sánchez, L. C., García, R. F., Sánchez-Sánchez, J., & García‐Montes, J. M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17186754 · Cited by 79
“Some authors described what they termed self-oriented perfectionism as critical self-scrutiny, unrealistic self-imposed personal standards, and requiring perfection of oneself, and socially-prescribed perfectionism as perceiving that others are demanding perfection of oneself and the need to achieve standards and goal…”
BackgroundHaase, A. M., & Harry Prapavessis, A. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.07.013 · Cited by 72
Olson, M. L., & Kwon, P. H. (2007) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9173-7 · Cited by 80
“Given these effects, it is not surprising that numerous studies have shown that perfectionism is associated with depressive symptoms (e.g., Enns and Cox 1999; Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991b), greater suicidal ideation (Chang 1998), and a vulnerability to distress (Hewitt and Flett 1991b).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFlett, G. L., Avi Besser, A., & Hewitt, P. L. (2005) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00352.x · Cited by 70
“As was the case with the results obtained with the small sample of students in the Hewitt and Flett (1991b) study, the degree of concordance was greatest for socially prescribed perfectionism and lowest for self-oriented perfectionism; overall, it was generally the case that the correlations were…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationComparing Two Short Forms of the Hewitt–Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
Stoeber, J. (2016) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116659740 · Cited by 85
“…the two other-oriented perfectionism short forms, the key finding of the present research is that other-oriented perfectionism—as conceptualized by Hewitt and Flett (1991, 2004)—is better captured by the extent to which people agree that they have extremely high expectations of others (as does…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLeader Perfectionism—Friend or Foe of Employee Creativity? Locus of Control as a Key Contingency
Xu, L., Liu, Z., Ji, M., Dong, Y., & Wu, C. (2021) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2019.0165 · Cited by 78
Chang, E. C. (2006) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9060-7 · Cited by 74
“In the first step, one graduate student and three undergraduate students familiar with the present definition of performance perfectionism and knowledgeable on research and theory on general models of perfectionism (e.g., Burns, 1980; Frost et al., 1990; Hamachek, 1978; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ) were asked to generate as…”
Shafran, R., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C. G. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00020-2 · Cited by 82
Reichenberger, J., Wiggert, N., Wilhelm, F. H., Weeks, J. W., & Blechert, J. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.10.004 · Cited by 74
Wu, K. D., & Cortesi, G. T. (2008) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.11.006 · Cited by 77
Blankstein, K. R., & Lumley, C. H. (2008) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0068-z · Cited by 80
“The dimensions of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991a) are differentially associated with various adaptational outcomes (see Flett and Hewitt 2002, for reviews).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMiller, J., & Vaillancourt, T. (2007) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20183 · Cited by 73
Perfectionists Do Not Play Nicely With Others: Expanding the Social Disconnection Model
Sherry, S., Mackinnon, S. P., & Gautreau, C. M. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_10 · Cited by 83
“Though positively correlated with other perfectionism dimensions (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), other-oriented perfectionism is distinguished from perfectionistic concerns and strivings through its overlap with antisocial and narcissistic traits.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Escape Theory of Suicide in College Students: Testing a Model That Includes Perfectionism
Dean, P. J., Range, L. M., & Goggin, W. C. (1996) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1996.tb00829.x · Cited by 67
Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational fears: An examination with the fear survey schedule
Blankstein, K. R., Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Eng, A. (1993) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90223-p · Cited by 71
Self-citationTheory and Research in Passion for Sport and Exercise
Vallerand, R. J., & Verner‐Filion, J. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119568124.ch11 · Cited by 74
Perfectionism and Anxiety: A Paradox in Intellectual Giftedness?
Guignard, J.-H., Jacquet, A.-Y., & Lubart, T. I. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041043 · Cited by 69
“More recently, perfectionism has been viewed as a multidimensional personality trait related to psychological difficulties, distortions of interpersonal relations and an erroneous relationship to success [3].”
BackgroundPrevalence and correlates of disordered eating in female figure skaters
Voelker, D. K., Gould, D., & Reel, J. J. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.12.002 · Cited by 69
The Relationship between Perfectionism and Rumination in Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Egan, S. J., Hattaway, M., & Kane, R. T. (2013) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465812001129 · Cited by 75
“In a longitudinal study Olson and Kwon (2008) examined the prediction of depressive symptoms over a 4-week period and found that individuals with high self-oriented and socially-prescribed perfectionism on the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991) as well as brooding rumi…”
BackgroundPerfectionism, Stressful Life Events, and the 1-Year Outcome of Depression
Enns, M. W., & Cox, B. J. (2005) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-005-2414-8 · Cited by 73
“…of samples have found a medium to large correlation between concern over mistakes, doubts about actions and SPP and depression symptoms and a small positive correlation between SOP and depression symptoms (Enns & Cox, 1999; Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA preliminary evaluation of cognitive‐behaviour therapy for clinical perfectionism: A case series
Glover, D. S., Brown, G. P., Fairburn, C. G., & Shafran, R. (2006) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466506x117388 · Cited by 75
Perfectionistic self-presentation, body image, and eating disorder symptoms
McGee, B. J., Hewitt, P. L., Sherry, S., Parkin, M., & Flett, G. L. (2005) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.01.002 · Cited by 70
“As a construct, perfectionism has been variously described, ranging from unidimensional cognitive perspectives (Burns, 1983) to multidimensional trait models (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe reliability and validity of the dichotomous thinking in eating disorders scale
Byrne, S. M., Allen, K. L., Dove, E. R., Watt, F. J., & Nathan, P. R. (2008) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.07.002 · Cited by 69
“…embedded in several existing scales, such as the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS; Weissman, 1979); several perfectionism scales (Burns, 1980; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Garner, 1991; Hewitt & Flett, 1991); and two Tolerance of Ambiguity scales (Budner, 1962; MacDonald, 1970).”
BackgroundPerfectionism, Performance, and State Positive Affect and Negative Affect After a Classroom Test
Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Hewitt, P. L. (2009) · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1177/0829573509332457 · Cited by 69
“Comparable internal consistency values have been obtained in other samples (see Hewitt et al., 1991).”
ResultSelf-citationPersonality predicts prospective memory task performance: An adult lifespan study
Cuttler, C., & Graf, P. (2007) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00570.x · Cited by 67
Examining body dissatisfaction in young men within a biopsychosocial framework
Bardone‐Cone, A. M., Cass, K. M., & Ford, J. A. (2008) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.12.004 · Cited by 69
“The socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) was administered to assess interpersonal perfectionism which reflects feeling that others have high expectations of oneself.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChang, E. C., & Sanna, L. J. (2001) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.48.4.490 · Cited by 72
An examination of emotion dysregulation in maladaptive perfectionism
Malivoire, B. L., Kuo, J. R., & Antony, M. M. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.04.006 · Cited by 82
Perfectionism and health functioning in women with fibromyalgia
Molnar, D. S., Flett, G. L., Sadava, S. W., & Colautti, J. (2012) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.08.001 · Cited by 76
“Why should these dimensions be relevant to an understanding of FMS? Socially prescribed perfectionism can be regarded as a chronic formof psychosocial stress that can involve an inherent sense of helplessness or hopelessness [17].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationFlett, G. L., Avi Besser, A., & Hewitt, P. L. (2014) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/psyc.2014.77.1.67 · Cited by 83
Self-citationThe relations between perfectionism and achievement goals
Hanchon, T. A. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.023 · Cited by 78
Nealis, L. J., Sherry, S. B., Sherry, D. L., Stewart, S. H., & Macneil, M. A. (2015) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2015.02.006 · Cited by 66
“While self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., demanding perfection of oneself) showed similar, albeit weaker, relations with these narcissistic features, socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., believing that others are demanding perfection of oneself) did not (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBékés, V., Dunkley, D. M., Taylor, G., Zuroff, D. C., Lewkowski, M. D., Foley, J. E., Myhr, G., & Westreich, R. (2015) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2015.02.003 · Cited by 69
Schoppe‐Sullivan, S. J., Yavorsky, J. E., Bartholomew, M. K., Sullivan, J. M., Lee, M. A., Dush, C. M. K., & Glassman, M. (2016) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0640-z · Cited by 78
“…introduced the construct of societal prescribed perfectionism, a variation of perfectionism that Bentails people’s belief or perception that significant others have unrealistic standards for them, evaluate them stringently, and exert pressure on them to be perfect^ (Hewitt and Flett 1991, p. 457).”
Stoeber, J., Madigan, D. J., Damian, L. E., Esposito, R. M., & Lombardo, C. (2016) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-016-0297-1 · Cited by 67
It’s not a virus! Reconceptualizing and de-pathologizing music performance anxiety
Herman, R., & Clark, T. W. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1194873 · Cited by 73
Mackinnon, S. P., & Sherry, S. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.010 · Cited by 68
“Hewitt & Flett, 1991), the 5-item concern over mistakes subscale (‘‘If I fail at work/school, I am a failure as a person;’’”
BackgroundInfluentialPerfectionism and narcissism: Testing unique relationships and gender differences
Sherry, S., Gralnick, T. M., Hewitt, P. L., Sherry, D. L., & Flett, G. L. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.007 · Cited by 79
“To expand, trait perfectionism comprises self-oriented perfectionism (demanding perfection of oneself), other-oriented perfectionism (demanding perfection of others), and socially prescribed perfectionism (perceiving others are demanding perfection of oneself; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationFältström, A., Hägglund, M., & Kvist, J. (2015) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.12588 · Cited by 67
“…Universities Scales of Personality (SSP; Gustavsson et al., 2000), which highlights 13 stable personality traits, and Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (SMPS; Dunn et al., 2002), which evaluates perfectionism in sports (considered an enduring personality trait; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundConstruct Validity of Fear of Commitment as an Indicator of Career Indecisiveness
Betz, N. E., & Serling, D. A. (1993) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/106907279300100104 · Cited by 65
Family patterns of perfectionism: An examination of elite junior athletes and their parents
Appleton, P. R., Hall, H., & Hill, A. P. (2010) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.04.005 · Cited by 81
“completed a self-report version of Hewitt and Flett’s (2004) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale.”
BackgroundMethodPerfectionism dimensions in major postpartum depression
Gelabert, E., Subirà, S., García-Esteve, L., Navarro, P., Plaza, A., Cuyàs, E., Navinés, R., Gratacòs, M., Valdés, M., & Martín‐Santos, R. (2011) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.08.030 · Cited by 68
Parent and youth perfectionism and internalizing psychopathology
Cook, L. C., & Kearney, C. A. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.10.029 · Cited by 66
“Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialMackinnon, S. P., Sherry, S., Graham, A. R., Stewart, S. H., Sherry, D. L., Allen, S. L., Fitzpatrick, S., & McGrath, D. S. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025068 · Cited by 72
“First, Sherry and Hall (2009) treated socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) as the central perfectionism variable of interest in the original PMOBE.”
BackgroundStoeber, J., & Damian, L. E. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.003 · Cited by 81
“Perfectionism is a personality disposition characterized by striving for flawlessness and setting exceedingly high standards of performance accompanied by overly critical evaluations of one’s behavior (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism and school engagement: A three-wave longitudinal study
Damian, L. E., Stoeber, J., Negru‐Subtirica, O., & Băban, A. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.044 · Cited by 71
“…and doubts about actions (i.e., over-preoccupation for not making mistakes and uncertainty about actions and beliefs; Frost et al., 1990) and socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., perceiving that others have perfectionistic expectations of oneself that one must fulfill; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundThe Integrated Motivational‐Volitional Model of Suicidal Behavior
O’Connor, R. C., Cleare, S., Eschle, S., Wetherall, K., & Kirtley, O. J. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118903223.ch13 · Cited by 68
“Socially prescribed perfectionism assesses the degree of personal belief that others hold unrealistically high expectations of one’s behavior and that they would only be satisfied with these standards (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundLethbridge, J., Watson, H. J., Egan, S. J., Street, H., & Nathan, P. R. (2011) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.04.003 · Cited by 72
Hewitt, P. L., Caelian, C., Chen, C., & Flett, G. L. (2014) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-014-9427-0 · Cited by 63
Self-citationBlasberg, J. S., Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Sherry, S. B., & Chen, C. (2016) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282916653701 · Cited by 65
“…perfectionism is associated with depressive symptoms and other indicators of maladjustment (e.g., Downey & Chang, 2007; Flamenbaum & Holden, 2007; Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 1993) whereas other research has shown no association with maladjustment (e.g., Clara, Cox, & Enns, 2007; Gilbert, Durrant, &…”
BackgroundSelf-citationHill, A. P., Witcher, C. S. G., Gotwals, J. K., & Leyland, A. (2015) · Sport Exercise and Performance Psychology · doi:10.1037/spy0000041 · Cited by 77
Gilbert, P., Durrant, R., & McEwan, K. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.05.004 · Cited by 64
Flett, G. L., Panico, T., & Hewitt, P. L. (2011) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-011-9103-4 · Cited by 64
“Self-oriented perfectionism reflects a focus on exceptionally high personal standards, while socially prescribed perfectionism is the perception that others demand perfection from the self ( Hewitt and Flett 1991 ).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationDunkley, D. M., & Kyparissis, A. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.022 · Cited by 73
So Perfect It's Positively Harmful?
Owens, R. G., & Slade, P. D. (2008) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445508319667 · Cited by 65
Perfectionism, low self-esteem, and family factors as predictors of bulimic behavior
Young, E. A., Clopton, J. R., & Bleckley, M. K. (2004) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2003.12.001 · Cited by 64
Disordered eating, perfectionism, and food rules
Brown, A. J., Parman, K. M., Rudat, D. A., & Craighead, L. W. (2012) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.05.011 · Cited by 82
“The construct of perfectionism involves placing excessive emphasis on organization and preciseness, holding idealistic personal expectations, critically self-evaluating when expectations are not met, and doubting the quality of personal accomplishments (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundThe impact of manipulating personal standards on eating attitudes and behaviour
Shafran, R., Lee, M., Payne, E. C., & Fairburn, C. G. (2005) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.08.009 · Cited by 68
Hill, A. P., Hall, H., Appleton, P. R., & Murray, J. J. (2010) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.24.1.16 · Cited by 64
“perfectionism (SPP) were assessed using Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional”
MethodExploring Social?Contextual Correlates of Perfectionism in Adolescents: A Multivariate Perspective
McArdle, S., & Duda, J. L. (2004) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-004-0665-4 · Cited by 69
“In line with Keselman et al.’s (1998) recommendation that dependent variables in MANOVA should link together conceptually, three separate one-way MANOVAs were conducted with perfectionistic tendencies, goal orientations, and motivational regulations, respectively, as the dependent variables.”
MethodAvi Besser, A., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2010) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00653.x · Cited by 70
“As such, other-oriented perfectionism is associated with hostility and extrapunitive tendencies toward others, rather than negative self-judgments (Hewitt & Flett, 1991b).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationConceptualization and assessment of personality factors in depression
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Endler, N. S., & Bagby, R. M. (1995) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2410090504 · Cited by 63
Self-citationChen, L. H., Kee, Y. H., & Tsai, Y. (2008) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9277-9 · Cited by 72
“Establishing construct validity evidence for the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSmith, M. M., Sherry, S., Vidovic, V., Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (2020) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2020.103954 · Cited by 65
Self-citationPerfectionism, silencing the self, and depression
Flett, G. L., Avi Besser, A., Hewitt, P. L., & Davis, R. A. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.012 · Cited by 63
“Extensive research has explored the role of individual differences in perfectionism (Cox & Enns, 2003; Flett, Besser, Davis, & Hewitt, 2003; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe relationships between perfectionism, pathological worry and generalised anxiety disorder
Handley, A. K., Egan, S. J., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2014) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-14-98 · Cited by 77
“ism (OOP; belief that others should be perfect) [14].”
BackgroundChang, E. C., Sanna, L. J., Chang, R., & Bodem, M. R. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.03.012 · Cited by 62
“Furthermore, some studies have shown that elevations on other-oriented perfectionism may at times be associated with greater paranoia and phobic symptoms (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWade, T. D., Wilksch, S. M., Paxton, S. J., Byrne, S. M., & Austin, S. B. (2015) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2015.01.007 · Cited by 64
Role of motivation in the relation between perfectionism and academic burnout in Korean students
Chang, E., Lee, A., Byeon, E., & Lee, S. M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.027 · Cited by 77
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) developed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) in order to measure perfectionism.”
BackgroundInfluentialPerfectionism, Coping, Social Support, and Depression in Maltreated Adolescents
Flett, G. L., Druckman, T., Hewitt, P. L., & Wekerle, C. (2011) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-011-0132-6 · Cited by 64
“The scale is patterned after the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt and Flett 1991) that is used to assess trait perfectionism in adults.”
MethodSelf-citationMultidimensional perfectionism and the DSM-5 personality traits
Stoeber, J. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.031 · Cited by 69
“…unique positive relationships with narcissistic and antisocial PD; and socially prescribed perfectionism has shown unique positive relationships with obsessive-compulsive, schizotypal, borderline, antisocial, avoidant, paranoid, passive-aggressive, and dependent PD (see also Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMuscle Dysmorphia and its Associated Psychological Features in Three Groups of Recreational Athletes
Cerea, S., Bottesi, G., Pacelli, Q. F., Paoli, A., & Ghisi, M. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-27176-9 · Cited by 62
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
