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Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
In the citing paper
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
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Sorkkila, M., & Aunola, K. (2021) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/10664807211027307 · Cited by 62
“…parents, socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP)—that is, the perception that other people are setting overly high demands for the individual (Hewitt & Flett, 1991)—has been shown to be a strong risk factor for parental burnout, effect of which is even stronger if the individual also has…”
BackgroundA systematic review of instruments for the assessment of eating disorders among adults
Schaefer, L. M., Crosby, R. D., & Machado, P. P. P. (2021) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000746 · Cited by 64
Park, H.-J., & Jeong, D. Y. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.031 · Cited by 67
“Chang (2006) found that self-oriented perfectionism of the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HF-MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) was positively related with Purpose in Life and Personal Growth, and socially prescribed perfectionism of HF-MPS was negatively associated with all the six…”
BackgroundAshby, J. S., Noble, C. L., & Gnilka, P. B. (2012) · Journal of College Counseling · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2012.00011.x · Cited by 64
Chan, D. W. (2009) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986209334963 · Cited by 63
“With this view, Hewitt and Flett (1989, 1991) developed the 45-item Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS) that assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism.”
MethodPerfectionism in Asian Indians
Slaney, R. B., Chadha, N. K., Mobley, M., & Kennedy, S. (2000) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000000281002 · Cited by 62
“The perception of perfectionism as a pathological trait also exerted a strong influence on attempts to devise measures of the construct (Burns, 1980; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodStoeber, J., Kobori, O., & Tanno, Y. (2009) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890903379159 · Cited by 71
“To further understand the nature of self-oriented perfectionism, it is helpful to compare it with socially prescribed perfectionism, another form of perfectionism first described by Hewitt and Flett (1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFlett, G. L., Baricza, C., Gupta, A., Hewitt, P. L., & Endler, N. S. (2011) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105310383601 · Cited by 62
“A 15-item short form of the original 45-item Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991) was used.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMcGonagle, A. K., Huang, J. L. W., & Walsh, B. M. (2015) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12058 · Cited by 61
A short review of perfectionism in sport, dance and exercise: out with the old, in with the 2 × 2
Hill, A. P., & Madigan, D. J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.021 · Cited by 62
“By contrast, Hewitt and Flett’s [2] model assesses self-oriented (imposing the need for perfection on the self), other-oriented (imposing the need for perfection on others) and socially prescribed (the belief that others are imposing the need for perfection) dimensions of perfectionism.”
MethodInfluentialThe problem of overcontrol: Perfectionism, emotional inhibition, and personality disorders
Dimaggio, G., MacBeth, A. M., Popolo, R., Salvatore, G., Perrini, F., Raouna, A., Osam, C. S., Buonocore, L., Bandiera, A., & Montano, A. (2018) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.03.005 · Cited by 73
“OCPD involves high personal standards and procrastination, as a byproduct of the fear of making mistakes [12,22,23].”
BackgroundAthletics, perfectionism, and disordered eating
Hopkinson, R. A., & Lock, J. (2004) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/bf03325052 · Cited by 72
Stoeber, J., & Kersting, M. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.012 · Cited by 62
“…conceptions of perfectionism have described as concern over mistakes (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hill et al., 2004), socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), or discrepancy between expectations and results (Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001).”
BackgroundCarr, S., & Wyon, M. (2003) · Journal of Dance Medicine & Science · doi:10.1177/1089313x0300700401 · Cited by 62
“Furthermore, minor flaws in performance are considered to constitute failure, and individuals have a tendency to amplify their perceived failures so as to undermine their general sense of selfworth.(41) A few reports have indicated that perfectionism may play a role as a motivational construct.”
BackgroundDisordered eating, perfectionism and body‐esteem of elite synchronized swimmers
Ferrand, C., Magnan, C., Rouveix, M., & Filaire, E. (2007) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461390701722168 · Cited by 63
“However, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale developed by Hewitt and Flett ( 1991 ) reflects both personal and social components and offers a better understanding.”
Parenting, personality, and culture as predictors of perfectionism
Walton, G. E., Hibbard, D. R., Coughlin, C., & Coyl-Shepherd, D. D. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9793-y · Cited by 70
Fältström, A., Kvist, J., Bittencourt, N., Mendonça, L., & Hägglund, M. (2021) · American Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1177/0363546521999109 · Cited by 44
Goulet‐Pelletier, J., Gaudreau, P., & Cousineau, D. (2021) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12530 · Cited by 74
Moroz, M., & Dunkley, D. M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.044 · Cited by 59
Culture‐specific personality correlates of anxiety among Chinese and Caucasian college students
Xie, D., Leong, F. T. L., & Feng, S. (2008) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2008.00253.x · Cited by 61
Chang, Y. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.002 · Cited by 64
Kopala‐Sibley, D. C., & Zuroff, D. C. (2014) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000013 · Cited by 62
“Thus, we review the developmental literature studying self-criticism and dependency (e.g., Blatt, 1974; Blatt & Luyten, 2009; Blatt & Zuroff, 1992), sociotropy and autonomy (Beck et al., 1983), and perfectionism (Frost et al., 1991; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialExplicit and implicit memory bias in social phobia. The role of subdiagnostic type
Lundh, L., & Öst, L. (1997) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(96)00122-2 · Cited by 59
Perfectionism and training distress in junior athletes: a longitudinal investigation
Madigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., & Passfield, L. (2016) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1172726 · Cited by 67
“Consequently, perfectionism is best conceptualised as a multidimensional disposition (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; see Enns & Cox, 2002, for a review).”
BackgroundAhmetoglu, G., Harding, X., Akhtar, R., & Chamorro‐Premuzic, T. (2015) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2015.1030293 · Cited by 62
“Although the study of perfectionism has a long history both in clinical research and personality psychology (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), research on its relationship to creativity is relatively scarce.”
BackgroundMallinson‐Howard, S. H., & Hill, A. P. (2011) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.05.009 · Cited by 58
“Contemporary multidimensional approaches are exemplified by the models developed by Frost et al. (1990) and Hewitt and Flett (1991).”
BackgroundMethodO’Connor, R. C., Whyte, M.-C., Fraser, L., Masterton, G., Miles, J. N. V., & MacHale, S. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.11.006 · Cited by 60
“Next, we conducted further tests separately on the high and low MPS-Social lines to determine whether they differed significantly from zero.”
BackgroundInfluentialDowney, C. A., & Chang, E. C. (2007) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2007.02.002 · Cited by 60
Practitioner perfectionism: Relationship to ambiguity tolerance and work satisfaction
Wittenberg, K., & Norcross, J. C. (2001) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.1116 · Cited by 60
Altstötter–Gleich, C., & Bergemann, N. (2006) · Diagnostica · doi:10.1026/0012-1924.52.3.105 · Cited by 65
Insecure attachment, perfectionistic self-presentation, and social disconnection in adolescents
Chen, C., Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Cassels, T. G., Birch, S., & Blasberg, J. S. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.009 · Cited by 63
“Perfectionism is often conceptualized as a multidimensional construct (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and according to Hewitt and Flett (1991), trait perfectionism entails three dimensions: selforiented, other-oriented and socially prescribed…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMaking Sense of Error: A View of the Origins and Treatment of Perfectionism
Greenspon, T. S. (2008) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.2008.62.3.263 · Cited by 58
Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386915-9.00021-8 · Cited by 68
Self-citationMiller, A. L., & Neumeister, K. L. S. (2017) · Journal of Advanced Academics · doi:10.1177/1932202x17730567 · Cited by 58
“Finally, Hewitt and Flett (1991) defined those scoring high on the measure of other-oriented perfectionism as having unrealistic expectations or standards for others’ performance or behaviors.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLee, Y. J., & Anderman, E. M. (2019) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101813 · Cited by 64
Perfectionism and multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) indices of personality disorder
Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Turnbull, W. (1992) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/bf00960777 · Cited by 60
“Past research has shown that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with a greater need for social approval and higher trait levels of dependency ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991b, 1992 ).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationDevelopmental Trajectories of Maladaptive Perfectionism Among African American Adolescents
Herman, K. C., Wang, K., Trotter, R. H., Reinke, W. M., & Ialongo, N. S. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12078 · Cited by 60
Fracalanza, K., Koerner, N., Deschênes, S. S., & Dugas, M. J. (2014) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2014.888754 · Cited by 61
“The MPS also assesses other-oriented perfectionism, although this subscale was not included in the present study as it has not been associated with worry or anger (e.g., Buhr & Dugas, 2006; Hewitt & Flett, 1991a).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMofield, E. L., & Peters, M. P. (2018) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986218758440 · Cited by 79
“The idea of a multidimensional theory of perfectionism was continued by others (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundChang, E. C. (2002) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1020329625158 · Cited by 59
“In fact, one of the major advantages of using the MPS over other measures of perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) is that it allows researchers to look at perfectionistic processes at a general level of analysis.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBiased interpretation in perfectionism and its modification
Yiend, J., Savulich, G., Coughtrey, A., & Shafran, R. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.10.004 · Cited by 59
“…(Burns; 1980; Pacht, 1984) but researchers now favour a multidimensional approach (e.g. Ashby & Rice, 2002; DiBartolo, Li, & Frost, 2008; Hewitt & Flett, 1990, 1991; Frost et al., 1990; Dunkley, Zuroff, & Blankstein, 2003; Terry-Short, Owens, Slade, & Dewey, 1995; Hill et al., 2004;…”
Moate, R. M., Gnilka, P. B., West, E. M., & Bruns, K. L. (2016) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/jcad.12073 · Cited by 58
Sherry, S., Gautreau, C. M., Mushquash, A. R., Sherry, D. L., & Allen, S. L. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.035 · Cited by 58
Perfectionistic self-presentation predicts social anxiety using daily diary methods
Mackinnon, S. P., Battista, S. R., Sherry, S., & Stewart, S. H. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.08.038 · Cited by 68
“It is also linked to other negative mood states, again suggesting the importance of controlling for depressed mood (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism and depressive symptoms in early adolescence
Rice, K. G., Leever, B. A., Noggle, C. A., & Lapsley, D. K. (2007) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20212 · Cited by 62
Longitudinal Links Between Perfectionism and Depression in Children
Asseraf, M., & Vaillancourt, T. (2014) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9947-9 · Cited by 72
Curran, T., Hill, A. P., & Williams, L. J. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.035 · Cited by 70
“It has been studied using individual models and their constituent sub-dimensions (e.g., Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991), as well as using combinations of multiple models to create higher-order dimensions of perfectionism (e.g., Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Rice, Ashby,…”
MethodEnns, M. W., Cox, B. J., & Borger, S. C. (2001) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(00)00305-0 · Cited by 62
Wheeler, H. A., Blankstein, K. R., Antony, M. M., McCabe, R. E., & Bieling, P. (2011) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2011.4.1.66 · Cited by 69
Sand, L., Bøe, T., Shafran, R., Stormark, K. M., & Hysing, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.688811 · Cited by 58
“Following the multidimensional model of trait perfectionism defined by Hewitt and Flett (31), EDI-P can be divided in two dimensions, self-oriented (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) (3).”
MethodZhong, W., Luo, J., & Lyu, Y. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0313314 · Cited by 70
“Self-critical perfectionism also plays a significant role, characterized by fear of underper-forming and tendencies toward procrastination [55], Such individuals may find ChatGPT particularly appealing because it offers immediate feedback and reassurance, helping them manage procrastination and…”
BackgroundCha, M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.008 · Cited by 59
The Effect of Perfectionism and Unconditional Self-acceptance on Depression
Scott, J. (2007) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-006-0032-3 · Cited by 63
“(PE); Hewitt and Flett’s measure (MPS-H: Hewitt & Flett, 1991a ) contains three dimensions, reflecting the ‘source’ or ‘object’ of the perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) is self-imposed and self-directed, other-oriented perfectionism (OOP) is directed towards others, and socially prescribed perfectionism…”
BackgroundInfluentialSteele, A. L., Waite, S., Egan, S. J., Finnigan, J., Handley, A. K., & Wade, T. D. (2012) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465812000628 · Cited by 65
“After receiving 10 sessions of CBT for clinical perfectionism, participants had clinically significant improvement on perfectionism as measured by the Clinical Perfectionism Questionnaire (Fairburn, Cooper and Shafran, unpublished, in Riley, Lee, Cooper, Fairburn and Shafran, 2007), FMPS and HMPS.”
MethodInfluentialRelationships between anger, symptoms, and cognitive factors in OCD checkers
Radomsky, A. S., Ashbaugh, A. R., & Gelfand, L. A. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.07.009 · Cited by 56
“In contrast, there is a wide body of research that demonstrates that perfectionism is associated with elevated trait anger (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003; Vallance, Dunn, & Causgrove Dunn, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodSmith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., Yan, G., & Sherry, S. B. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.006 · Cited by 57
“doubts about actions; HFMPS = Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional Perfec-”
BackgroundMethodPinto, A., Dargani, N., Wheaton, M. G., Cervoni, C., Rees, C. S., & Egan, S. J. (2017) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2017.01.001 · Cited by 70
Library anxiety: a decade of empirical research
Cleveland, A. (2004) · Library Review · doi:10.1108/00242530410526583 · Cited by 56
Multidimensional perfectionism in a sample of middle school students: An exploratory investigation
Gilman, R., & Ashby, J. S. (2003) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.10125 · Cited by 58
Maladaptive perfectionism's link to aggression and self‐harm: Emotion regulation as a mechanism
Chester, D. S., Merwin, L. M., & DeWall, C. N. (2014) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21578 · Cited by 55
Mushquash, A. R., & Sherry, S. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.08.006 · Cited by 59
“1), we focus on SPP and not lf-oriented perfectionism (which is highly intrapersonal; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialRosser, S., Issakidis, C., & Peters, L. (2003) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1023505108426 · Cited by 60
“…Perfectionism Scale (MPS-F; Frost et al., 1990) The Frost MPS-F was chosen above the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) as the MPS-F is regarded as being more sensitive to the underlying differences between the anxiety disorders (Antony et al.,…”
MethodPerfectionism and the Imposter Phenomenon in Academically Talented Undergraduates
Lee, L. E., Rinn, A. N., Crutchfield, K., Ottwein, J. K., Hodges, J., & Mun, R. U. (2020) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986220969396 · Cited by 74
“Alphas from the original validation of the scale range from .79 to .89 (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodCallaghan, T., Greene, D., Shafran, R., Lunn, J., & Egan, S. J. (2023) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2023.2277121 · Cited by 77
Verner‐Filion, J., & Vallerand, R. J. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.07.018 · Cited by 69
“Specifically, SOP sometimes has been found to predict negative effects (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStoeber, J., & Yang, H. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.044 · Cited by 61
“This view, however, disregards that perfectionism is best conceptualized as a multidimensional personality characteristic (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001; see Enns & Cox, 2002 for a review).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSherry, S. B., MacKinnon, A. L., Fossum, K.-L., Antony, M. M., Stewart, S. H., Sherry, D. L., Nealis, L. J., & Mushquash, A. R. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.017 · Cited by 53
Ozbilir, T., Day, A., & Catano, V. M. (2014) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12032 · Cited by 58
The 2×2 model of perfectionism: A critical comment and some suggestions
Stoeber, J. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.029 · Cited by 63
Kim, L. E., Chen, L., MacCann, C., Karlov, L., & Kleitman, S. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.01.033 · Cited by 65
“…Trippi, & Ashby, 2001), Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990), and Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) established the emergence of three factors: a maladaptive factor, an adaptive factor, and an Order/Organization factor…”
BackgroundPerfectionism: The good, the bad, and the creative
Wigert, B. G., Reiter‐Palmon, R., Kaufman, J. C., & Silvia, P. J. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.08.007 · Cited by 53
“Journal of Research in Personality (2012), http:// 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism in Pediatric Anxiety and Depressive Disorders
Affrunti, N. W., & Woodruff-Borden, J. (2014) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-014-0164-4 · Cited by 54
“…on his/herself for him/her to be perfect; socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), requirements perceived by the individual that others require him/her to be perfect; and other-prescribed perfectionism (OPP), requirements imposed by the individual on others to be perfect (Hewitt and Flett 1991a).”
InfluentialZeynali, S., Pishghadam, R., & Fatemi, A. H. (2019) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101598 · Cited by 72
Wang, Y., Xu, S. T., & Ma, E. (2021) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102984 · Cited by 62
A systematic review of the factors associated with athlete burnout in team sports
Woods, S., Dunne, S. K., Gallagher, P., & McNicholl, A. (2022) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2022.2148225 · Cited by 53
“…were included under personal standards perfectionism and those examining socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) were included under evaluative concerns , as SOP and SPP are sub-dimensions of personal standards and evaluative concerns perfectionism respectively (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Hill, 2013).”
Appearance anxiety and social anxiety: A mediated model of self-compassion
Gao, J., Feng, Y., Xu, S., Wilson, A. D., Li, H., Wang, X., Sun, X., & Wang, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1105428 · Cited by 60
“The Social Anxiety subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale (SASS) was designed by Fenigstein and revised by Scheier and Carver (25) to measure the level of social anxiety.”
MethodCasale, S., Fioravanti, G., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2014) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.06.006 · Cited by 53
Self-citationAppleton, P. R., Hall, H., & Hill, A. P. (2011) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2010.551541 · Cited by 53
“Perfectionism reflects the compulsive pursuit of high standards and a tendency to engage in critical evaluations (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990 ; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).”
BackgroundSteele, A. L., O’Shea, A. E., Murdock, A., & Wade, T. D. (2010) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.20817 · Cited by 64
Perfectionism and Contingent Self-Worth in Relation to Disordered Eating and Anxiety
Bardone‐Cone, A. M., Lin, S. L., & Butler, R. M. (2016) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2016.05.006 · Cited by 62
“…types of psychopathology, and factor analytic work (e.g., Bieling, Israeli, & Antony, 2004) has demonstrated that the subscales of the two most commonly used perfectionism measures (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) load onto two factors reflecting these dimensions.”
BackgroundJohnston, J., Shu, C. Y., Hoiles, K. J., Clarke, P., Watson, H. J., Dunlop, P. D., & Egan, S. J. (2018) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2018.05.008 · Cited by 62
Psychological Predictors for Depression and Burnout Among German Junior Elite Athletes
Nixdorf, I., Beckmann, J., & Nixdorf, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00601 · Cited by 71
Can cognitive restructuring reduce the disruption associated with perfectionistic concerns?
DiBartolo, P. M., Frost, R. O., Dixon, A., & Almodovar, S. (2001) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(01)80051-4 · Cited by 52
Self-criticism in generalized social phobia and response to cognitive-behavioral treatment
Cox, B. J., Walker, J. R., Enns, M. W., & Karpinski, D. C. (2002) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(02)80012-0 · Cited by 53
MacNamara, Á., & Collins, D. (2015) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2014-0021 · Cited by 52
Perfectionism as a predictor of physician burnout
Martin, S. R., Fortier, M. A., Heyming, T. W., Ahn, K. S., Nichols, W., Golden, C. J., Saadat, H., & Kain, Z. N. (2022) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-022-08785-7 · Cited by 61
“The self-critical perfectionism scale reflects three dimensions of perfectionism: a tendency to be highly self-critical of less than perfect performance [34], uncertainty about the quality of one’s own performance [35], and the expectation that others demand perfection or socially-prescribed perfectionism [17, 36].”
BackgroundBachner‐Melman, R., Zohar, A. H., Bacon-Shnoor, N., Elizur, Y., Nemanov, L., Gritsenko, I., & Ebstein, R. P. (2005) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001.26.1.2 · Cited by 52
Penniment, K. J., & Egan, S. J. (2011) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.1089 · Cited by 61
Rice, K. G., Kubal, A. E., & Preusser, K. J. (2004) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.10160 · Cited by 53
An item response theory and factor analytic examination of two prominent maximizing tendency scales
Weinhardt, J. M., Morse, B. J., Chimeli, J., & Fisher, J. (2012) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500006367 · Cited by 49
“…(Beck & Beck, 1972); life orientation, which assesses dispositional optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1985); satisfaction with life (Diener, et al., 1985); dispositional neuroticism (John, et al., 1991); self-oriented perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1990; 1991); and self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965).”
Sherry, S. B., Stoeber, J., & Ramasubbu, C. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.059 · Cited by 52
Development and Initial Validation of the Performance Perfectionism Scale for Sport (PPS-S)
Hill, A. P., Appleton, P. R., & Mallinson‐Howard, S. H. (2016) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282916651354 · Cited by 56
“This decision was made so as to balance the desire to capture the concepts as described by Hewitt and Flett (1991, 2004) with the need to provide guidance to participants (“Below are statements that reflect beliefs that athletes hold when taking part in sport.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPerfectionism and work-family conflict: Self-esteem and self-efficacy as mediator
Deuling, J. K., & Burns, L. R. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.05.013 · Cited by 63
“Maladaptive socially-prescribed perfectionism, perceiving others to have high standards and expectations for one's life (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), among working mothers was found related to increased emotional exhaustion at work and parental distress, and decreased self and life satisfaction…”
BackgroundDoctoral Student Perfectionism and Emotional Well-Being
Moate, R. M., Gnilka, P. B., West, E. M., & Rice, K. G. (2019) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2018.1547619 · Cited by 55
“Future researchers might want to consider replicating this study using measures from other competing theories of perfectionism such as Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990) and Hewitt and Flett (1991).”
MethodVandiver, B. J., & Worrell, F. C. (2002) · Journal of Advanced Academics · doi:10.4219/jsge-2002-372 · Cited by 52
“…theorists for some time(e.g., Adler, 1964; Murray, 1938), perfectionism became a focus of empirical study in the last decade with the development of multidimensional scales to measure perfectionism (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Slaney & Johnson, 1992).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA meta‐analysis of disordered eating and its association with self‐criticism and self‐compassion
Paranjothy, S. M., & Wade, T. D. (2024) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.24166 · Cited by 67
Family of origin characteristics as predictors of perfectionism
Craddock, A. E., Church, W., & Sands, A. (2008) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530802239326 · Cited by 50
Flett, G. L., Goldstein, A. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Wekerle, C. (2012) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-012-9130-9 · Cited by 49
“The following abbreviations were used: ESS (Experience of Shame Scale), MPS (Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale), MPS-F (Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale), Self (Self-Oriented Perfectionism), Other (Other-Oriented Perfectionism), and Social (Socially Prescribed Perfectionism) young women may be prone to di…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation5 The Behavioral Consequences of Irrational Beliefs
Szentágotai, A., & Jones, J. (2009) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195182231.003.0005 · Cited by 51
Adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism in medical students: a longitudinal investigation
Enns, M. W., Cox, B. J., Sareen, J., & Freeman, P. (2001) · Medical Education · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2001.01044.x · Cited by 417
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
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