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Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
In the citing paper
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
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Items 601–700 of 1,032
Nobel, R., Manassis, K., & Wilansky-Traynor, P. (2011) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-011-0133-5 · Cited by 51
“For children and adolescents, Hewitt and Flett (1991b) conceptualize perfectionism to include: Self-oriented perfectionism (SOP): the adhering to strict standards while maintaining strong motivation to both attain perfection and avoid failure, and Socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP): the belief that others hold un…”
BackgroundLundh, L., Saboonchi, F., & Wångby, M. (2007) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9109-7 · Cited by 53
“In terms of Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) model, however, maladaptive perfectionism need not”
BackgroundThe longitudinal associations between perfectionism and academic achievement across adolescence
Endleman, S., Brittain, H. L., & Vaillancourt, T. (2021) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650254211037400 · Cited by 65
“SPP involves striving for perfection due to the belief that significant others (e.g., peers, parents, coaches) have unrealistic expectations of the self (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialAnxiety Mediates the Relationship between Perfectionism and Insomnia Symptoms: A Longitudinal Study
Akram, U., Ellis, J. G., & Barclay, N. L. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138865 · Cited by 51
“parental expectations and criticism), Hewitt and colleagues [18] propose this approach to be rather restricted, suggesting that the perceived evaluation of other people (i.”
InfluentialAn Evaluation of the Factor Structure of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
Harvey, B., Pallant, J., & Harvey, D. (2004) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164404264842 · Cited by 50
“He administered a translation of the FMPS to 243 students of the Free University of Berlin, Germany, and, using Horn’s (1965) parallel analysis, found only four factors that exceeded criterion values.”
BackgroundMethodDisordered eating behaviors and sleep disturbances
Bos, S. C., Soares, M. J., Marques, M., Maia, B., Pereira, A. T., Nogueira, V., Valente, J., & Macedo, A. (2013) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.01.012 · Cited by 50
Self-control mediates the link between perfectionism and stress
Achtziger, A., & Bayer, U. C. (2012) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-012-9321-6 · Cited by 52
The relationship between multidimensional perfectionism and contingencies of self-worth
Hill, A. P., Hall, H., & Appleton, P. R. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.036 · Cited by 50
“In accord, previous research has demonstrated that this dimension of perfectionism is associated with a strong desire for approval and a fear of negative evaluation (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTeam Perfectionism and Team Performance: A Prospective Study
Hill, A. P., Stoeber, J., Brown, A., & Appleton, P. R. (2014) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2013-0206 · Cited by 54
“To measure perfectionism, we used the 15-item short form of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; short form: Cox, Enns, & Clara, 2002) capturing self-oriented (five items; e.g., “I am perfectionistic in setting my goals”), other-oriented (five items; e.g., “I do not…”
MethodYang, H., & Chen, J. (2015) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-015-0213-8 · Cited by 51
“(2005) and McArdle (2010), two scales from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt and Flett 1991; cf. MPS-Short Form; Cox et al. 2002) were adapted.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSmith, M. M., Sherry, S., McLarnon, M. E., Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Saklofske, D. H., & Etherson, M. E. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.05.040 · Cited by 60
Self-citationMotivation to pursue a career in music: The role of social constraints in university music programs
Miksza, P., Evans, P., & McPherson, G. E. (2019) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735619836269 · Cited by 69
High-Ability College Students and Undergraduate Honors Programs: A Systematic Review
Rinn, A. N., & Plucker, J. A. (2019) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/0162353219855678 · Cited by 50
Testing the Escape Theory of Suicide in an Outpatient Clinical Population
Dean, P. J., & Range, L. M. (1999) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1018728606568 · Cited by 50
“Although socially prescribed perfectionism failed to moderate life stress and depression, it was signi® cantly related to depression, a ® nding consistent with other research (Dean & Range, 1996; Dean et al., 1996; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPerfectionism and Job Stress in Teachers
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Hallett, C. J. (1995) · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1177/082957359501100105 · Cited by 50
Self-citationNarcissistic Personality Disorder: Progress in Recognition and Treatment
Ronningstam, E., & Weinberg, I. (2013) · Focus · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.11.2.167 · Cited by 50
Academic Perfectionism, Psychological Well-Being, and Suicidal Ideation in College Students
Fernández‐García, O., Gil‐Llario, M. D., Castro‐Calvo, J., Morell‐Mengual, V., Ballester‐Arnal, R., & Estruch‐García, V. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20010085 · Cited by 50
“Hewitt, P.L.; Flett, G.L.; Sherry, S.B.; Caelian, C. Trait Perfectionism Dimensions and Suicidal Behavior.”
BackgroundInfluentialAn Exploration of Stress and Satisfaction in College Students
Lee, J., & Jang, S. (2015) · Services Marketing Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15332969.2015.1046774 · Cited by 49
“When a student finds that the expectations set by others are too high for them to meet, they are faced with a socially prescribed burden (Chang, 2006; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMadjar, N., Voltsis, M., & Weinstock, M. P. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.864756 · Cited by 50
“…on high performance standards and the perception of oneself as being well organised, whereas maladaptive perfectionism involves the negative emotions of fear and anxiety that may accompany the consideration of performance (e.g. Bieling et al., 2004; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Stoeber et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodSherry, S., Richards, J. E., Sherry, D. L., & Stewart, S. H. (2014) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.05.004 · Cited by 50
Can Perfectionism Affect Career Development? Exploring Career Thoughts and Self‐Efficacy
Andrews, L. M., Bullock‐Yowell, E., Dahlen, E. R., & Nicholson, B. C. (2014) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00155.x · Cited by 56
Lampard, A. M., Byrne, S. M., McLean, N. J., & Fursland, A. (2011) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.09.007 · Cited by 51
“…beliefs about perfectionism in the intrapersonal and interpersonal domains, which correspond to the “self-oriented” and “socially prescribed” perfectionism dimensions outlined in the Hewitt and Flett (1991) multidimensional model of perfectionism (Sherry, Hewitt, Besser, McGee, & Flett, 2004).”
MethodGaringer, L. M., Chow, G. M., & Luzzeri, M. (2018) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2018.1521514 · Cited by 52
“Due to the multifaceted nature of trait perfectionism, it is almost impossible to find athletes solely possessing adaptive qualities without maladaptive qualities as well (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundBlankstein, K. R., & Winkworth, G. (2004) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/b:jore.0000047312.20212.30 · Cited by 50
“Hewitt and Flett (1991b) conceptualized perfectionism as a threedimensional personality construct comprising socially prescribed, self-oriented, and other-oriented perfectionism and they developed a self-report instrument—the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), to measure the components.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFlett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Demerjian, A., Sturman, E. D., Sherry, S., & Cheng, W. (2011) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-011-0131-7 · Cited by 57
“It should be associated with self-criticism given evidence linking trait perfectionism and self-criticism (e.g., Enns and Cox 1999; Enns et al. 2003; Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991, 1993 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBinge eating and binge eating disorder
Schmidt, U. H. (2000) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/1099-0968(200010)8:5 · Cited by 14
Perfectionism in relation to attributions for success or failure
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Pickering, D. I. (1998) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-998-1010-y · Cited by 51
Self-citationTobin, R., & Dunkley, D. M. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103780 · Cited by 48
Comparative Social Media Use and the Mental Health of Mothers With High Levels of Perfectionism
Padoa, T., Berle, D., & Roberts, L. (2018) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2018.37.7.514 · Cited by 50
Music performance anxiety and perfectionism in Croatian musicians
Butković, A., Vukojević, N., & Carević, S. (2021) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735620978692 · Cited by 55
“Several studies have reported no gender differences in perfectionism (e.g., Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992; Hewitt & Flett, 1991), but Dunn, Gotwals, and Dunn (2005) indicated that gender differences in perfectionism might depend on whether perfectionism is measured as a global…”
BackgroundResultThe Influence of Parental Perfectionism and Parenting Styles on Child Perfectionism
Carmo, C., Oliveira, D. F., Brás, M. S. V., & Faísca, L. (2021) · Children · doi:10.3390/children8090777 · Cited by 48
“One of the most popular and commonly used multidimensional conceptualizations of perfectionism was proposed by Hewitt and Flett [1], consisting in a tripartite model which includes both intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions: self-oriented perfectionism (SOP; demanding perfection of oneself), socially prescribed p…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBills, E., Greene, D., Stackpole, R., & Egan, S. J. (2023) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2023.106586 · Cited by 69
Gautreau, C. M., Sherry, S., Mushquash, A. R., & Stewart, S. H. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.005 · Cited by 49
The 2×2 model of perfectionism: Commenting the critical comments and suggestions of
Gaudreau, P. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.021 · Cited by 48
Addressing Multidimensional Perfectionism in Gifted Adolescents with Affective Curriculum
Mofield, E. L., & Chakraborti-Ghosh, S. (2010) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/016235321003300403 · Cited by 51
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) have conceptualized multidimensional perfectionism by three motivational trait dimensions: self-oriented, socially-prescribed, or other-oriented.”
Lin, S., & Muenks, K. M. (2022) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102110 · Cited by 58
“If Only I Had Done Better”: Perfectionism and the Functionality of Counterfactual Thinking
Sirois, F. M., Monforton, J., & Simpson, M. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210387614 · Cited by 47
“Other ways of assessing perfectionism include self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Cheng, W. M. W. (2008) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0066-1 · Cited by 47
“In our first study, a sample of 102 participants completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale ( Hewitt and Flett 1991 ) and the IBT (Jones 1969).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationTaranis, L., & Meyer, C. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.024 · Cited by 55
Perfectionism and eating behaviour in Portuguese adolescents
Bento, C., Pereira, A. T., Maia, B., Marques, M., Soares, M. J., Bos, S. C., Valente, J., Gomes, A. A., Azevedo, M. H., & Macedo, A. (2010) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.981 · Cited by 47
Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., & Nordstokke, D. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.013 · Cited by 52
Madigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., & Passfield, L. (2016) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.05.010 · Cited by 50
Damian, L. E., Negru‐Subtirica, O., Stoeber, J., & Băban, A. (2016) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2016.1271877 · Cited by 48
“…concerns capture the dimensions of perfectionism reflecting beliefs that others expect perfection (socially prescribed perfectionism) and evaluative concerns such as concerns about making mistakes and doubts about actions (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; see Stoeber & Otto, for a review).”
BackgroundOtto, K., Geibel, H. V., & Kleszewski, E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.657394 · Cited by 62
Exercise Dependence and Maladaptive Perfectionism: the Mediating Role of Basic Psychological Needs
Costa, S., Coppolino, P., & Oliva, P. (2015) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-015-9586-6 · Cited by 53
“Considering a multidimensional perspective (Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991), perfectionism is a personality trait comprising of both adaptive and maladaptive components.”
BackgroundRasch calibration of a unidimensional perfectionism inventory for sport
Anshel, M. H., Weatherby, N. L., Kang, M., & Watson, T. D. (2008) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.006 · Cited by 48
The “Response-to-Failure” Scale: Predicting Behavior following Initial Self-Control Failure
Zemack‐Rugar, Y., Corus, C., & Brinberg, D. L. (2012) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.10.0510 · Cited by 45
Hill, A. P., & Davis, P. (2014) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-014-9404-7 · Cited by 54
“tionism is an achievement related personality trait that includes a combination of a commitment to exceedingly high standards and self-critical evaluative tendencies (Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism: A contributor to social anxiety and its cognitive processes
Cox, S. L., & Chen, J. (2014) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12079 · Cited by 54
PERFECTIONISM AND ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS IN ADOLESCENT SCHOOL STUDENTS
Damian, L. E., Stoeber, J., Negru‐Subtirica, O., & Băban, A. (2014) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21794 · Cited by 55
Perfectionism, narcissism, and depression in suicidal and nonsuicidal adolescent inpatients
Freudenstein, O., Valevski, A., Apter, A., Zohar, A. H., Shoval, G., Nahshoni, E., Weizman, A., & Zalsman, G. (2012) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.08.011 · Cited by 46
“Indeed, self-oriented perfectionism has been found to be associated with narcissism among students [22].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialOddo-Sommerfeld, S., Hain, S., Louwen, F., & Schermelleh-Engel, K. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.11.040 · Cited by 54
Mofield, E. L., Peters, M. P., & Chakraborti-Ghosh, S. (2016) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci6030021 · Cited by 51
“It is widely regarded as multidimensional and is associated with both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes [20,24,25], an idea that has been largely accepted by the field of gifted education [5,8–10,12,26–30].”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychological predictors of body image attitudes and concerns in young children
Nichols, T. E., Damiano, S. R., Gregg, K. J., Wertheim, E. H., & Paxton, S. J. (2018) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.005 · Cited by 47
The self and depression: Four psychological theories and their potential neural correlates
Kopala‐Sibley, D. C., & Zuroff, D. C. (2019) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12456 · Cited by 54
Samfira, E. M., & Paloș, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.751930 · Cited by 64
“Considered as multidimensional and multifaceted personality traits (Stoeber and Rennert, 2008; Hill et al., 2016), perfectionism consists of having high standards of performance, overly-critical evaluation about one’s behaviors, fears and doubts of one’s actions, and over-concern about other’s evaluation and criticism…”
BackgroundInterpreting Successes and Failures: The Influence of Perfectionism on Perspective
Neumeister, K. L. S. (2004) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.4219/jeg-2004-320 · Cited by 47
“and (c) evidence of perfectionistic tendencies, as defined by a high score on either the socially prescribed or self-oriented subscales of the Hewitt and Flett (1991) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPerfectionism in Academically Gifted Students: A Systematic Review
Grugan, M. C., Hill, A. P., Madigan, D. J., Donachie, T. C., Olsson, L. F., & Etherson, M. E. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09597-7 · Cited by 70
IS THERE AN ANTIDOTE TO PERFECTIONISM?
Greenspon, T. S. (2014) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21797 · Cited by 56
Sherry, S., Vriend, J. L., Hewitt, P. L., Sherry, D. L., Flett, G. L., & Wardrop, A. A. M. (2009) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2008.12.002 · Cited by 44
“Alpha reliabilities for the MPS subscales are usually .80 or higher (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
InfluentialSelf-citationPerfectionism and social anxiety: Rethinking the role of high standards
Shumaker, E. A., & Rodebaugh, T. L. (2009) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.04.002 · Cited by 51
“The more well-researched of these scales is Frost et al.’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost et al.,1990), which assesses the presence of various kinds of high standards and critical selfevaluation.”
BackgroundPersonality diatheses and Hurricane Sandy: effects on post-disaster depression
Kopala‐Sibley, D. C., Kotov, R., Bromet, E. J., Carlson, G. A., Danzig, A. P., Black, S. R., & Klein, D. N. (2015) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291715002378 · Cited by 44
“…dependency (Blatt & Zuroff, 1992; Kopala-Sibley & Zuroff, 2010, 2014), sociotropy and autonomy (Beck et al. 1983; Clark & Beck, 1999), hopelessness/helplessness (Rose & Abramson, 1992; Iacoviello et al. 2013), and perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), increase the effects of stress on depression.”
Perfectionism in students and positive career planning attitudes
Stoeber, J., Mutinelli, S., & Corr, P. J. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.065 · Cited by 46
“Second, there is one dimension of perfectionism that has been neglected: other-oriented perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
InfluentialPerfectionism, trait emotional intelligence, and psychological outcomes
Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., & Yan, G. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.05.010 · Cited by 55
Flaxman, P. E., Stride, C., Söderberg, M., Lloyd, J., Guenole, N., & Bond, F. W. (2017) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2017.1391792 · Cited by 50
Stoeber, J., & Yang, H. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.032 · Cited by 52
Perfectionism and Fear of Intimacy: Implications for Relationships
Martin, J. L., & Ashby, J. S. (2004) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/1066480704267279 · Cited by 45
“Criticism of self and others is a commonly identified characteristic of destructive perfectionism (e.g., Hewitt & Flett, 1989, 1991).”
BackgroundChan, D. W. (2011) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/016235321003400104 · Cited by 46
“For example, Hewitt and Flett (1989, 1991) developed the 45-item Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS) that assesses self-oriented, otheroriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism.”
MethodWithin-Semester Stability and Adjustment Correlates of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
Rice, K. G., & Dellwo, J. P. (2001) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1080/07481756.2002.12069031 · Cited by 45
The association between social media use and body dysmorphic symptoms in young people
Gupta, M., Jassi, A. D., & Krebs, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1231801 · Cited by 53
“Perfectionism includes having excessively high standards for oneself (self-oriented perfectionism) and beliefs that others hold one to excessively high standards (socially-prescribed perfectionism) (Hewitt and Flett, 1991).”
Perfectionism and sleep disturbance
de Azevedo, M. H. P., Soares, M. J., Bos, S. C., Gomes, A. A., Maia, B., Marques, M., Pereira, A. T., & Macedo, A. (2008) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622970701367930 · Cited by 43
Clothing functions and use of clothing to alter mood
Kang, J. M., Johnson, K. K. P., & Kim, J. (2013) · International Journal of Fashion Design Technology and Education · doi:10.1080/17543266.2012.762428 · Cited by 47
“Kopalle and Lehmann (2001) stated that they drew on measures by Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, and Neubauer (1993) and Hewitt and Flett (1991).”
BackgroundÖngen, D. E. (2009) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2009.tb00091.x · Cited by 44
Tran, L., & Rimes, K. A. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.042 · Cited by 53
Macedo, A., Marques, C., Quaresma, V., Soares, M. J., Amaral, A. P., Araújo, A. I., & Pereira, A. T. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.032 · Cited by 47
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) conceptualized perfectionism as consisting of both intrapersonal (i.e., self-oriented perfectionism – SOP) and interpersonal (i.e., other-oriented perfectionism – OOP; socially prescribed perfectionism – SPP) dimensions.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialLevine, S. L., & Milyavskaya, M. (2018) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2018.02.002 · Cited by 44
Guo, L., Chiang, J. T., Mao, J., & Chien, C. (2020) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12308 · Cited by 49
Vacca, M., Ballesio, A., & Lombardo, C. (2020) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2793 · Cited by 55
Laurenti, H. J., Bruch, M. A., & Haase, R. F. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.02.018 · Cited by 44
“Relative to validity, the SPP is related to measures of selfblame, fear of negative evaluation, depression and anxiety (Hewitt & Flett, 1991b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPishghadam, R., & Akhondpoor, F. (2011) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.4304/jltr.2.2.432-440 · Cited by 48
“In the past decade, there has been an increasing interest in the perfectionism construct, and it has been associated with many forms of psychopathology including trait anxiety (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a,b), depression, social anxiety (Rosser, Issakidis, & Peters, 2003).”
BackgroundPsychosocial Characteristics in Relation to Disordered Eating Attitudes in Greek Adolescents
Costarelli, V., Αντωνοπούλου, Κ., & Mavrovounioti, C. (2010) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.1030 · Cited by 44
Smith, M. M., Hewitt, P. L., Sherry, S. B., Flett, G. L., & Ray, C. (2022) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104180 · Cited by 47
Self-citationMuyan, M., & Chang, E. C. (2015) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9711-7 · Cited by 47
“Based on the contention that perfectionism is strongly involved in the development and maintenance of psychopathology in adults (e.g., Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991; Shafran et al. 2002; Shafran and Mansell 2001; cf. Chang 2006) and with past research findings linking perfectionism to suicidal risk outcomes…”
BackgroundAnxiety and Perfectionism: Relationships, Mechanisms, and Conditions
Burgess, A. M., & DiBartolo, P. M. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_8 · Cited by 47
Perfectionism, Shame, and Self-concept in Dancers a Mediation Analysis
Eusanio, J., Thomson, P., & Jaque, S. V. (2014) · Journal of Dance Medicine & Science · doi:10.12678/1089-313x.18.3.106 · Cited by 52
Casale, S., Fioravanti, G., Rugai, L., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.026 · Cited by 46
“The original scale development work by Hewitt and Flett (1991) on their Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale established that narcissism was associated with other-oriented perfectionism.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSmith, M. M., & Saklofske, D. H. (2016) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1208209 · Cited by 43
“the reliability, as well as validity, of the HFMPS–SPP and HFMPS–OOP is reported in Hewitt et al. (2008). Additionally, Mackinnon and Sherry (2012) reported a Cronbach’s alpha from .87 to .89 for the FMPS–COM and Rice and Dellwo (2002) found a Cronbach’s alpha of .”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychometric Properties of the Psychological Vulnerability Scale in Higher Education Students
Nogueira, M. J., Barros, L., & Sequeira, C. (2017) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/1078390317695261 · Cited by 44
Matos, M., & Steindl, S. R. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23055 · Cited by 43
Harren, N., Walburg, V., & Chabrol, H. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100117 · Cited by 53
Nonsuicidal Self-Injury and Perfectionism: A Systematic Review
Győri, D., & Balázs, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.691147 · Cited by 51
“The most frequently used questionnaire was the FMPS (21).”
BackgroundInfluentialKehayes, I. L., Smith, M. M., Sherry, S., Vidovic, V., & Saklofske, D. H. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.09.022 · Cited by 48
Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Adolescent Suicide
King, R. A., & Apter, A. (1996) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.1996.11822443 · Cited by 43
Measures for Anxiety and Related Constructs
Roemer, L. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47628-2_8 · Cited by 43
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) developed a 45-item self-report measure of perfectionism.”
BackgroundPerfectionism in Mathematically Gifted and Typical Czech Students
Parker, W. D., Portešová, Š., & Stumpf, H. (2001) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/016235320102500203 · Cited by 43
Bardone‐Cone, A. M., Joiner, T. E., Crosby, R. D., Crow, S. J., Klein, M. H., Grange, D. L., Mitchell, J. E., Peterson, C. B., & Wonderlich, S. A. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.04.003 · Cited by 48
Li, Y., Lan, J., & Ju, C. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.01.050 · Cited by 47
“The current study utilized the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS) to assessed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Labrecque, Stephenson, Boivin, & Marchand, 1998).”
MethodMindfulness: Seeking a More Perfect Approach to Coping with Life’s Challenges
Hinterman, C., Burns, L. R., Hopwood, D., & Rogers, W. (2012) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0091-8 · Cited by 49
“The claim has been made that perfectionism is a maladaptive trait linked to depression (Hewitt and Flett 1991, 1993), anxiety (Blankstein et al. 1993; Mitchelson and Burns 1998), and other psychological problems.”
BackgroundAssociations Between Perfectionism and Generalized Anxiety: Examining Cognitive Schemas and Gender
Klibert, J., Lamis, D. A., Naufel, K. Z., Yancey, C. T., & Lohr, S. (2015) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-015-0208-9 · Cited by 42
“Among college student samples, the MPS dimensions have demonstrated solid internal consistency (a = .82–.87; Hewitt and Flett 1991) and excellent construct validity with other highly regarded measures of perfectionism (Hewitt and Flett 2004).”
BackgroundLloyd, S., Fleming, C., Schmidt, U. H., & Tchanturia, K. (2014) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2313 · Cited by 47
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
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