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Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
In the citing paper
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
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Perfectionism and eating disorders: a review of the literature
Franco‐Paredes, K., Díaz, J. M. M., Arévalo, R. V., Aguilar, X. L., & Álvarez-Rayón, G. (2004) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.605 · Cited by 93
Avi Besser, A., Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Guez, J. (2008) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0067-0 · Cited by 94
“adequate reliability and validity ( Hewitt and Flett 1991, 2004 ).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationKljajić, K., Gaudreau, P., & Franche, V. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.06.004 · Cited by 114
Dimensions of perfectionism and type a behaviour
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Dynin, C. B. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90073-6 · Cited by 90
Self-citationRole of perfectionism and Five-Factor model traits in career indecision
Page, J. C., Bruch, M. A., & Haase, R. F. (2008) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.08.013 · Cited by 96
A First Study of Perfectionism and Multidimensional Life Satisfaction among Adolescents
Gilman, R., & Ashby, J. S. (2003) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431603023002005 · Cited by 102
“…& SATISFACTION 219 Other descriptive labels have been applied to the Hamachek (1978) multidimensional model (e.g., Owens & Slade, 1987; Piirto, 1994; Slaney et al., 2002), with empirical findings supporting the multidimensionality of perfectionism (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
MethodMadigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., & Passfield, L. (2016) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2015-0238 · Cited by 108
“…socially prescribed perfectionism (an externally motivated form of perfectionism focused on concerns about how others evaluate one’s performance; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and perfectionist concerns over mistakes are closely related to introjected and external regulation (Stoeber, Davis, &…”
BackgroundInfluentialStoll, O., Lau, A., & Stoeber, J. (2007) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.10.001 · Cited by 100
The Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale: Development and Preliminary Validation
Yang, H., & Stoeber, J. (2011) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9260-7 · Cited by 106
“All these studies investigated general perfectionism which is defined as a general disposition affecting people across various domains of life (Hewitt and Flett 1991).”
Dimensions of Perfectionism, Hopelessness, and Attempted Suicide in a Sample of Alcoholics
Hewitt, P. L., Norton, G. R., Flett, G. L., Callander, L., & Cowan, T. (1998) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.1998.tb00975.x · Cited by 87
Self-citationRoberts, S. M., & Lovett, S. B. (1994) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/016235329401700304 · Cited by 91
Burns, D. D., & Spangler, D. L. (2001) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(01)80008-3 · Cited by 91
The structure and temporal stability of the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale.
O’Connor, R. C., Dixon, D. L., & Rasmussen, S. A. (2009) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0016264 · Cited by 97
“The most widely used of these are the two Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (MPS) developed by Hewitt and Flett (1991) and by Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990), respectively.”
BackgroundMethodMaladaptive coping and self-esteem as mediators between perfectionism and psychological distress
Park, H.-J., Heppner, P. P., & Lee, D. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.024 · Cited by 100
Luyckx, K., Soenens, B., Goossens, L., Beckx, K., & Wouters, S. (2008) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.4.336 · Cited by 88
Perceived changes in food intake in response to stress: the role of conscientiousness
O'Connor, D. B., & O’Connor, R. C. (2004) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1028 · Cited by 89
Short, M. M., & Mazmanian, D. S. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.05.026 · Cited by 107
Closson, L. M., & Boutilier, R. R. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.04.010 · Cited by 89
Trends and knowledge base in sport and exercise psychology research: a bibliometric review study
Lindahl, J., Stenling, A., Lindwall, M., & Colliander, C. (2015) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2015.1019540 · Cited by 94
“Flett G represents another line of research on perfectionism, viewing the construct as a maladaptive personality trait (Flett & Hewitt, 2005; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundBlankstein, K. R., Dunkley, D. M., & Wilson, J. T. (2008) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-008-9022-1 · Cited by 100
“The reliability and validity of the MPS ( Hewitt and Flett 1991b; Hewitt et al. 1991), FMPS (Frost et al. 1990; Frost et al. 1993), and APS-R (Slaney et al. 2001; Slaney et al. 2002) in both college and clinical populations has been well established.”
BackgroundMethodThe Effects of Self-Criticism and Self-Oriented Perfectionism on Goal Pursuit
Powers, T. A., Koestner, R., Zuroff, D. C., Milyavskaya, M., & Gorin, A. A. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211410246 · Cited by 101
Self-handicapping, perfectionism, locus of control and self-efficacy: A path model
Stewart, M. A., & George‐Walker, L. D. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.038 · Cited by 91
“…lists available at ScienceDirect Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate /paid overgeneralisation of failure, stringent self-evaluations, and all or none thinking, where only total success or total failure exist as outcomes’’ (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, p. 456).”
BackgroundWyatt, R., & Gilbert, P. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00146-3 · Cited by 88
McLaren, L., Gauvin, L. I., & White, D. R. (2001) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.1023 · Cited by 89
Egan, S. J., Shafran, R., Lee, M., Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., Palmer, R. L., & Watson, H. J. (2016) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465814000629 · Cited by 90
“Perfectionism has predominately been viewed as multidimensional and measured with the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart and Rosenblate, 1990) and the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HMPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991).”
Does Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder Belong Within the Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum?
Fineberg, N. A., Sharma, P. A., Sivakumaran, T., Sahakian, B. J., & Chamberlain, S. R. (2007) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852900015340 · Cited by 96
Perfectionism in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Frost, R. O., Novara, C., & Rhéaume, J. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008043410-0/50007-6 · Cited by 92
Sica, C., Bottesi, G., Orsucci, A., Pieraccioli, C., Sighinolfi, C., & Ghisi, M. (2015) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.02.002 · Cited by 88
Moretz, M. W., & McKay, D. (2009) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.015 · Cited by 84
An integrative quantitative model of factors influencing the course of anorexia nervosa over time
Yackobovitch‐Gavan, M., Golan, M., Valevski, A., Kreitler, S., Bachar, E., Lieblich, A., Mitrani, E., Weizman, A., & Stein, D. J. (2008) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.20624 · Cited by 94
Moroz, M., & Dunkley, D. M. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2018.11.006 · Cited by 89
Stoeber, J. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.002 · Cited by 95
Appleton, P. R., & Hill, A. P. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.6.2.129 · Cited by 89
“…prescribed perfectionism is characterized by achievement striving that is fueled by a self-worth contingent upon gaining the approval of others, feelings of fear associated with failure, and a fragile self-esteem (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), all of which deine non-self-determined extrinsic motivation.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Eating Disorders Continuum, Self‐Esteem, and Perfectionism
Peck, L. D., & Lightsey, O. R. (2008) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00496.x · Cited by 85
Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2019) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282919881928 · Cited by 92
“The Hewitt and Flett (1991) and Frost et al. (1990) MPS inventories both included an emphasis on the interpersonal perfectionism dimensions.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationClarifying the Construct of Perfectionism
Stairs, A. M., Smith, G. T., Zapolski, T. C. B., Combs, J. L., & Settles, R. E. (2011) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191111411663 · Cited by 95
“It was developed to capture more of the content domain underlying perfectionism than either the HMPS or the FMPS.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDimensions of perfectionism and goal commitment: A further comparison of two perfectionism measures
Flett, G. L., Sawatzky, D. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (1995) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/bf02229013 · Cited by 83
“In the course of examining specific perfectionism content areas, the current study also enabled us to assess the degree of overlap between the Frost et al. (1990) and the Hewitt and Flett (1991) measures, as well as compare the two multidimensional perfectionism scales in terms of their relationship to goal”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPerfectionism, Components of Stress Reactivity, and Depressive Symptoms
Flett, G. L., Nepon, T. B., Hewitt, P. L., & Fitzgerald, K. (2016) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-016-9554-x · Cited by 100
“Second, it was hypothesized that stress reactivity to social evaluation would be associated with socially prescribed perfectionism due to the sensitivity to social evaluation that underscores socially prescribed perfectionism (Flett et al. 1997; Hewitt and Flett 1991; Nepon et al. 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationPerfectionism and library anxiety among graduate students
Jiao, Q. G., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (1998) · The Journal of Academic Librarianship · doi:10.1016/s0099-1333(98)90073-8 · Cited by 85
Self-criticism as a mediator in the relationship between unhealthy perfectionism and distress
James, K., Verplanken, B., & Rimes, K. A. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.01.030 · Cited by 109
“…in the relationship between unhealthy perfectionism and distress Kirsty James a,⇑, Bas Verplanken b, Katharine A. Rimes c a Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom b Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom c King’s…”
BackgroundInfluentialDimensions of Perfectionism and Self-worth Contingencies in Depression
Sturman, E. D., Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Rudolph, S. G. (2008) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0079-9 · Cited by 84
“In contrast, Hewitt and Flett (1991) proposed that there are three forms of perfectionism: (1) self-oriented perfectionism where individuals set unrealistically high standards for themselves and put a great deal of pressure on themselves to meet these standards; (2) a socially prescribed perfectionism where individual…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationThe multiple dimensions of perfectionism and their relation with eating disorder features
Pearson, C. A., & Gleaves, D. H. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.01.013 · Cited by 85
Kobori, O., Yoshie, M., Kudo, K., & Ohtsuki, T. (2011) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.03.001 · Cited by 109
Academic examination stress increases disordered eating symptomatology in female university students
Costarelli, V., & Patsai, A. (2012) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/bf03325343 · Cited by 85
Hawkins, C. C., Watt, H. M. G., & Sinclair, K. E. (2006) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164405285909 · Cited by 84
“Frost and colleagues (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993) combined the six subscales from the FMPS with the three subscales from the HMPS (the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale developed by Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ) in a principal components factor analysis.”
BackgroundMethodDavis, C. A., & Scott-Robertson, L. (2000) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/s1471-0153(00)00007-6 · Cited by 84
Gaudreau, P. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.08.022 · Cited by 82
Neuroticism and perfectionism as predictors of social anxiety
Newby, J., Pitura, V. A., Penney, A. M., Klein, R. G., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.057 · Cited by 84
“The MPS has good internal consistency among nonclinical samples (α = 0.79 to 0.89), and high test-retest reliability (rs = 0.75 to 0.89; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPsychometric characteristics of revised Sociotropy and Autonomy Scales in college students
Clark, D. A., Steer, R. A., Beck, A. T., & Ross, L. (1995) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00074-t · Cited by 84
Ghisi, M., Chiri, L. R., Marchetti, I., Sanavio, E., & Sica, C. (2010) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.06.011 · Cited by 87
Research on perfectionism and achievement motivation: implications for gifted students
Fletcher, K. L., & Neumeister, K. L. S. (2012) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21623 · Cited by 86
“…with rigid adherence to impossibly high standards, irrational importance on the attainment of these standards, overgeneralization of failures, and engagement in all or none thinking (Burns, 1980; Flett & Hewitt, 2006; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Pacht, 1984).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMoral affect and cognitive processes: Differentiating shame from guilt among men and women
Lutwak, N., & Ferrari, J. R. (1996) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(96)00135-3 · Cited by 81
Five-Factor Model and Difficulties in Career Decision Making
Martincin, K. M., & Stead, G. B. (2014) · Journal of Career Assessment · doi:10.1177/1069072714523081 · Cited by 84
“Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991); Transition to College Inventory (Lounsbury et al., 2003); and the Big Five Inventory (Benet-Martinez & John, 1998).”
BackgroundChang, E., Lee, A., Byeon, E., Seong, H., & Lee, S. M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.010 · Cited by 97
“An individual with other-oriented perfectionistic traits expects others to perform perfectly, so as to meet her or his own high standards, and constantly evaluates others (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCovert and overt expressions of self‐criticism and perfectionism and their relation to depression
Powers, T. A., Zuroff, D. C., & Topciu, R. A. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.499 · Cited by 82
“The two most widely used and extensively researched measures of perfectionism, however, come from Hewitt and Flett (1991) and Frost, Marten, Lahart, and Rosenblate (1990).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRepresentational Models Associated With Fear of Failure in Adolescents and Young Adults
Conroy, D. E. (2003) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7105003 · Cited by 82
Relationship obsessive compulsive disorder (ROCD): A conceptual framework
Doron, G., Derby, D. S., & Szepsenwol, O. (2013) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2013.12.005 · Cited by 95
“…the “rightness” of the relationship (e.g., “I don0t feel perfect with him all the time so maybe he is not THE ONE”) and other-oriented perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) may result in extreme preoccupation with specific features of a romantic partner0s personality or appearance (e.g., “she is…”
BackgroundSuicide Risk Assessment With Asian American College Students
Choi, J. L., Rogers, J. R., & Werth, J. L. (2007) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000006292256 · Cited by 85
Bardone‐Cone, A. M., Thompson, K. A., & Miller, A. J. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12448 · Cited by 96
Perfectionism, mattering, and depression: A mediational analysis
Flett, G. L., Pechenkov, I. G., Molnar, D. S., Hewitt, P. L., & Goldstein, A. L. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.041 · Cited by 81
“…assessed were self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., unrealistic standards imposed on oneself); other-oriented perfectionism (i.e., the demand for others to be perfect); and socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others demand perfection from us) (see Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationRelationship between perfectionism and emotional symptoms in an adolescent sample
Einstein, D. A., Lovibond, P. F., & Gaston, J. E. (2000) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530008255373 · Cited by 83
From perfectionism to academic adjustment: The mediating role of achievement goals
Verner‐Filion, J., & Gaudreau, P. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.029 · Cited by 80
Workaholism profiles: Associations with determinants, correlates, and outcomes
Gillet, N., Morin, A. J. S., Cougot, B., & Gagné, M. (2017) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12185 · Cited by 90
Cowie, M., Nealis, L. J., Sherry, S., Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.027 · Cited by 95
“Research supports the reliability and the validity of this scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Hewitt, Flett, Turnbull-Donovan, & Mikail, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Relation between Perfectionism and Impostor Phenomenon
Dudău, D. P. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.226 · Cited by 95
Cognitive-affective mediators of perfectionism and college student adjustment
Rice, K. G., Vergara, D., & Aldea, M. A. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.011 · Cited by 80
“There is growing recognition that perfectionism (a) is a multidimensional construct (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001), (b) can be operationalized and 0191-8869/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd.”
BackgroundShahar, G., Blatt, S. J., Zuroff, D. C., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2003) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.71.3.629 · Cited by 80
Seeking the perfect balance: Perfectionism and work–family conflict
Mitchelson, J. K. (2008) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317908x314874 · Cited by 82
“Using Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) perspective on perfectionism, a more adaptive self-oriented perfectionism has been found positively related to achieving tendencies, while the more maladaptive socially prescribed perfectionism, perceiving others to have high standards and expectations for one’s life, has been found neg…”
BackgroundThe network of conscientiousness
Costantini, G., & Perugini, M. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.10.003 · Cited by 83
Stress situation reveals an association between perfectionism and drive for thinness
Ruggiero, G. M., Levi, D., Ciuna, A., & Sassaroli, S. (2003) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.10191 · Cited by 79
Azam, M. A., Katz, J., Fashler, S. R., Changoor, T., Azargive, S., & Ritvo, P. (2015) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.06.005 · Cited by 78
Graham, A. R., Sherry, S. B., Stewart, S. H., Sherry, D. L., McGrath, D. S., Fossum, K. M., & Allen, S. L. (2010) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020667 · Cited by 79
Perfectionism and explicit self-esteem: The moderating role of implicit self-esteem
Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Terry, C. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601118850 · Cited by 80
“Although several multidimensional models of perfectionism have been generated (eg, Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990 ; Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ), investigators have begun combining these multiple dimensions into two primary dimensions believed to measure adaptive (or normal) and maladaptive (or neurotic) forms of…”
BackgroundInfluentialBranley-Bell, D., O'Connor, D. B., Green, J. A., Ferguson, E., O’Carroll, R. E., & O’Connor, R. C. (2019) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.07.007 · Cited by 95
“The Social Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt and Flett, 1991) is a 15-item measure.”
MethodArgus, G., & Thompson, M. S. (2007) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9102-1 · Cited by 90
“It has also been shown that of these constructs, the self-oriented dimension of perfectionism is most associated with depressive symptom severity (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a).”
BackgroundPerfectionism: The Crucible of Giftedness
Silverman, L. K. (2007) · Gifted Education International · doi:10.1177/026142940702300304 · Cited by 79
Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., Yan, G., & Sherry, S. (2017) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000223 · Cited by 84
“…incremental, China Perfectionism is a personality trait characterized by striving for flawlessness, setting excessively high personal standards, and experiencing overly negative reactions to perceived mistakes and setbacks (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialCheng, S. K. W., Chong, G. H.-C., & Wong, C. W. (1999) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4679(199909)55:9 · Cited by 81
Obsessionality in Anorexia Nervosa
Davis, C. A., Kaptein, S. A., Kaplan, A. S., Olmsted, M. P., & Woodside, D. B. (1998) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-199803000-00015 · Cited by 78
“The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) (46) is a 45-item inventory composed of three low to moderately correlated subscales.”
BackgroundLundh, L.-G., Broman, J.-E., Hetta, J., & Saboonchi, F. (1994) · Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506079409455949 · Cited by 76
“Hewitt and Flett’s (1991a) MPS is constructed in another way than Frost et al’s scale, and does not distinguish between different aspects of perfectionism.”
MethodSchwartz, B. (2015) · Positive Psychology in Practice · doi:10.1002/9781118996874.ch8 · Cited by 77
Multidimensional perfectionism and narcissism: grandiose or vulnerable?
Stoeber, J., Sherry, S. B., & Nealis, L. J. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.027 · Cited by 78
“Socially prescribed perfectionists believe that others expect them to be perfect, and that others will be highly critical of them if they fail to meet their expectations (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 2004).”
BackgroundClarke, N. M. P., & Mahadi, N. B. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2724-z · Cited by 80
“Contingent forms of acceptance have been found to predict self-esteem problems and depression (Deci and Ryan 1995; Hewitt and Flett 1991).”
BackgroundStackpole, R., Greene, D., Bills, E., & Egan, S. J. (2023) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2023.101769 · Cited by 102
O’Connor, R. C., & Forgan, G. S. (2007) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0057-2 · Cited by 77
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) have identified three components of perfectionism: socially prescribed perfectionism, self-oriented perfectionism, and other-oriented perfectionism.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPerfectionism, beliefs, and adjustment in dating relationships
Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Shapiro, B., & Rayman, J. (2001) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-001-1013-4 · Cited by 78
“Socially prescribed perfectionism is another important interpersonal dimension that reflects individual concerns about being the target of unrealistic expectancies ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991b ).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationWetherall, K., Robb, K. A., & O'Connor, R. C. (2019) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12434 · Cited by 77
“The MPS has exhibited good validity and reliability in many studies (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundLewis, E. G., & Cardwell, J. M. (2020) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-020-00423-3 · Cited by 98
The Scars of the Inner Critic: Perfectionism and Nonsuicidal Self‐Injury in Eating Disorders
Claes, L., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Vandereycken, W. (2012) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.1158 · Cited by 77
“Hoff and Muehlenkamp (2009), for instance, found elevated levels of concern about mistakes (one key aspect of ECP) in college students with NSSI.”
BackgroundPerfectionism and Negative Affect After Repeated Failure
Stoeber, J., Schneider, N. A., Hussain, R., & Matthews, K. A. (2014) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000130 · Cited by 89
“Regarding multidimensional conceptualizations of perfectionism, one of the most influential and widely researched models is Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) model.”
MethodParenting perfectionism and parental adjustment
Lee, M. A., Schoppe‐Sullivan, S. J., & Dush, C. M. K. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.047 · Cited by 77
“Perfectionism can also be described as societal-oriented, or focused on society’s expectations for an individual, or self-oriented, focusing on an individual’s own expectations (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism, coping, and depression symptomatology in a clinical sample
Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Endler, N. S. (1995) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.5640020105 · Cited by 74
Self-citationTesting the autogenous-reactive model of obsessions
Lee, H.-J., Kwon, S.-M., Kwon, J. S., & Telch, M. J. (2005) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20063 · Cited by 77
Gamble, S. A., & Roberts, J. E. (2005) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-005-3160-7 · Cited by 76
“To assess perfectionistic parenting, we used Randolph and Dykman’s (1998) modified version of the Socially-Prescribed Perfectionism subscale of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale ( Hewitt & Flett, 1991 ).”
MethodBardone‐Cone, A. M., Vohs, K. D., Abramson, L. Y., Heatherton, T. F., & Joiner, T. E. (2000) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(00)80015-5 · Cited by 76
Examining the relationship between perfectionism and trait anger in competitive sport
Dunn, J. G. H., Gotwals, J. K., Dunn, J. C., & Syrotuik, D. G. (2006) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2006.9671781 · Cited by 82
“Moreover, socially prescribed perfectionism has been associated with both self-blame (r = .49) and other-blame (r = .39; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPerfectionism as an Explanatory Construct in Comorbidity of Axis I Disorders
Bieling, P., Summerfeldt, L. J., Israeli, A. L., & Antony, M. M. (2004) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1023/b:joba.0000022112.27186.98 · Cited by 74
“…show that perfectionism is associated with a wide variety of psychopathology that crosses the spectrum of Axis I disorders (e.g., Antony, Purdon, Huta, & Swinson, 1998; Hewitt & Flett, 1991b, 1993; Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1996; Hewitt, Flett, Turnbull-Donovan, & Mikail, 1991; Juster et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHealthy Perfectionism in the Gifted
Parker, W. D. (2000) · Journal of Advanced Academics · doi:10.4219/jsge-2000-632 · Cited by 78
Avoidant coping: A mediator of maladaptive perfectionism and test anxiety
Weiner, B. A., & Carton, J. S. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.009 · Cited by 90
“An additional disadvantage of evaluative concerns perfectionism is its association with clinical anxiety and depression (e.g., Hewitt & Flett, 1991a).”
BackgroundOnwuegbuzie, A. J., & Jiao, Q. G. (2003) · Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.10342 · Cited by 76
“For the current inquiry, the coefficient alpha reliability estimates of the MPS subscales were .86 (95% CI .83, .89) for the self-oriented, .70 (95% CI .64, .75) for the other-oriented, and .84 (95% CI .80, .87) for the socially prescribed subscales.”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
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