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Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
In the citing paper
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
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Boone, L. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.01.006 · Cited by 36
“This subscale contains 15 items, scored on a 7-points Likert scale, and has been shown to have good psychometric properties (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
Chang, E. C., Lin, N. J., Herringshaw, A. J., Sanna, L. J., Fabian, C. G., Perera, M. J., & Marchenko, V. V. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.027 · Cited by 41
“A second model of perfectionism by Hewitt and Flett (1991) defines perfectionism as a multidimensional construct composed of the three dimensions: self-oriented perfectionism (e.g., “I must work to my full potential at all times”), socially prescribed perfectionism (e.g., “The people around me…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWitcher, L. A., Alexander, E. S., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Collins, K. M. T., & Witcher, A. E. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.016 · Cited by 36
Chang, E. C., Zumberg, K. M., Sanna, L. J., Girz, L. P., Kade, A. M., Shair, S. R., Hermann, N. B., & Srivastava, K. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.026 · Cited by 36
Perfectionism and Eating Disorders
Wade, T. D., O’Shea, A. E., & Shafran, R. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_9 · Cited by 49
Perfectionism in Gifted Adolescents
Margot, K. C., & Rinn, A. N. (2016) · Journal of Advanced Academics · doi:10.1177/1932202x16656452 · Cited by 35
What do we need for creativity? The interaction of perfectionism and overall justice on creativity
Kim, S. L., Kim, M., & Yun, S. (2017) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/pr-06-2015-0187 · Cited by 35
Ghosh, R., & Roy, S. (2017) · Gender in Management An International Journal · doi:10.1108/gm-01-2017-0011 · Cited by 39
Cerea, S., Bottesi, G., Grisham, J. R., & Ghisi, M. (2017) · International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1080/13651501.2017.1393545 · Cited by 36
“Good internal consistency values have been reported for the original MPS, ranging between a¼ .79 and a¼ .89 in a student sample (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodThe Preteen Perfectionist: An Evaluation of the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model
Magson, N. R., Oar, E. L., Fardouly, J., Johnco, C. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2019) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-019-00897-2 · Cited by 37
“Hewitt and colleagues have consistently described all three types of perfectionism as maladaptive and associated with social and emotional difficulties when expressed at high levels [10, 11].”
BackgroundWhen performance gets personal: Towards a theory of performance-based identity
Walker, B. W., & Caprar, D. V. (2019) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726719851835 · Cited by 36
“…(Roccas et al., 2002), competitiveness (Graziano et al., 1997), need for achievement (Phillips and Gully, 1997), and/or self-oriented perfectionism (Hewitt and Flett, 1991) to be more likely to construct performance-based identities around positive performance self-knowledge, and also more likely…”
BackgroundO'Connor, D. B., Branley-Bell, D., Green, J. A., Ferguson, E., O’Carroll, R. E., & O’Connor, R. C. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.08.006 · Cited by 35
“The socially prescribed perfectionism sub-scale from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991) was used.”
MethodSumi, K., & Kanda, K. (2002) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00088-5 · Cited by 35
Moral perfectionism and moral values, virtues, and judgments: A preliminary investigation
Yang, H., Stoeber, J., & Wang, Y. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.040 · Cited by 35
“In contrast, psychological research—while making great progress in the understanding of general perfectionism in the past 25 years (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991)—has so far ignoredmoral perfectionism.”
BackgroundResultLo, A., & Abbott, M. J. (2013) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9528-1 · Cited by 41
“A growing body of research has shown that perfectionism is best conceptualised as a multidimensional construct (Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991; Slaney et al. 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEgan, S. J., Piek, J. P., Dyck, M. J., Rees, C. S., & Hagger, M. S. (2012) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s135246581200063x · Cited by 47
“The predominant definition of perfectionism has been based on the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (FMPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart and Rosenblate, 1990; HMPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991).”
MethodOvercoming Negative Aspects of Perfectionism through Group Treatment
Kutlesa, N., & Arthur, N. M. (2008) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0064-3 · Cited by 42
“Perfectionism includes both (a) interpersonal (social) and intrapersonal (personal) aspects (Frost et al. 1990; Hewitt and Flett 1991a; Hill et al. 2004; Slaney and Johnson 1992) and (b) adaptive and maladaptive qualities (e.g., Blatt 1995; Hill et al. 1997; Lundh 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialTaylor, S. J., Kyrios, M., Thordarson, D. S., Steketee, G. S., & Frost, R. O. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-008043410-0/50009-x · Cited by 35
The role of personality in defeat: a revised social rank model
Sturman, E. D., & Mongrain, M. (2007) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.653 · Cited by 35
“22: 55–79 (2008) DOI: 10.1002/per socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt and Flett, 1991) would respond to defeat in much the same way as self-critics.”
BackgroundInfluentialBrindley, P. G. (2017) · Journal of the Intensive Care Society · doi:10.1177/1751143717713088 · Cited by 37
“While doctors are lauded for their perfectionism, this may be accompanied by a need for external validation.(20) We also often buy the ‘myth of invincibility’ (‘my patients get sick, I don’t’).”
BackgroundStoeber, J., & Edbrooke-Childs, J. H. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1695-2_279 · Cited by 44
Cognitive behavioral therapy-related increases in cortical inhibition in problematic perfectionists
Radhu, N., Daskalakis, Z. J., Guglietti, C. L., Farzan, F., Barr, M. S., Arpin-Cribbie, C. A., Fitzgerald, P. B., & Ritvo, P. (2012) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2011.01.006 · Cited by 30
Egan, S. J., Wade, T. D., Fitzallen, G., O’Brien, A., & Shafran, R. (2022) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465821000357 · Cited by 32
“Multi-dimensional measures of perfectionism (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990; HMPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991) have been found to consistently load onto two factors: perfectionistic strivings (rigid pursuit of perfectionism) and perfectionistic concerns (concerns over mistakes and other people’s judgement about performance) (Bi…”
BackgroundDomocus, I. M., & Damian, L. E. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.05.012 · Cited by 34
Flett, G. L. (2018) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89842-1_20 · Cited by 34
Self-citationPerfectionism and emotion regulation in adolescents: A two-wave longitudinal study
Vois, D., & Damian, L. E. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109756 · Cited by 34
Pia, T., Galynker, I., Schuck, A., Sinclair, C., Ying, G., & Calati, R. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17041424 · Cited by 34
“In the third dimension, socially prescribed perfectionism, people feel as though they are expected to be perfect by someone else [10,14].”
BackgroundKleszewski, E., & Otto, K. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110016 · Cited by 40
Perfectionism and interpersonal problems revisited
Stoeber, J., Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., & Sherry, S. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110106 · Cited by 36
Do Athlete and Coach Performance Perfectionism Predict Athlete Burnout?
Olsson, L. F., Madigan, D. J., Hill, A. P., & Grugan, M. C. (2021) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2021.1916080 · Cited by 38
“, 2016), a 12-item instrument based on Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) model of perfectionism.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPERFECTIONISM AND RISK FOR DISORDERED EATING AMONG YOUNG FRENCH MALE CYCLISTS OF HIGH PERFORMANCE
Ferrand, C., & Brunet, E. (2004) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.99.3.959-967 · Cited by 37
Perfectionism as a Predictor of Post-event Rumination in a Socially Anxious Sample
Brown, J. R., & Kocovski, N. L. (2013) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-013-0175-y · Cited by 32
Perfectionistic cognitions and eating disturbance: Distinct mediational models for males and females
Downey, C. A., Reinking, K. R., Gibson, J. M., Cloud, J. A., & Chang, E. C. (2014) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.04.020 · Cited by 34
Goodwin, H., Arcelus, J., Geach, N., & Meyer, C. (2014) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2282 · Cited by 41
Perfectionism and Thoughts About Having Cosmetic Surgery Performed1
Sherry, S., Hewitt, P. L., Lee‐Baggley, D., Flett, G. L., & Avi Besser, A. (2004) · Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2004.tb00103.x · Cited by 34
“Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMultidimensional Perfectionism and Burnout: A Meta-AnalysisPreprint
Curran, T. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wzber · Cited by 35
Gattino, S., Czepczor‐Bernat, K., Fedi, A., Brytek‐Matera, A., Boza, M., Lemoine, J. E., Sahlan, R. N., Wilson, E., Piccoli, N. D., & Rollero, C. (2023) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.6075 · Cited by 40
“Perfectionism was assessed with two subscales of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991): Self-Oriented Prescribed Perfectionism (5 items; e.g., “One of my goals is to be perfect in everything I do”) and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (5 items; e.g., “The people…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialDunn, J. G. H., Dunn, J. C., & McDonald, K. A. (2012) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.05.002 · Cited by 38
Perfectionism and eating attitudes in portuguese students: A longitudinal study
Soares, M. J., Macedo, A., Bos, S. C., Marques, M., Maia, B., Pereira, A. T., Gomes, A. A., Valente, J., Pato, M. T., & de Azevedo, M. H. P. (2009) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.926 · Cited by 33
Self-assessment of the four subtypes of perfectionism in the 2×2 model of perfectionism
Gaudreau, P. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.039 · Cited by 32
“…standards that are imposed by others who ‘‘have unrealistic standards for them, evaluate them stringently, and exert pressure on them to be perfect’’ (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, p. 457).1 In recent theoretical, empirical, and methodological articles (e.g., Gaudreau, 2012, 2013; Gaudreau &…”
BackgroundCrosby, J. M., Bates, S. C., & Twohig, M. P. (2011) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-011-9104-3 · Cited by 37
“The research has also supported the multidimensional concept as the findings varied as a function of the dimension of perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGenetic and environmental contributions to perfectionism and its common factors
Iranzo-Tatay, C., Gimeno‐Clemente, N., Barberá-Fons, M. A., Rodriguez-Campayo, M. Á., Rojo-Bofill, L. M., Livianos‐Aldana, L., Beato‐Fernández, L., Leal, F. J. V., & Rojo‐Moreno, L. (2015) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.11.020 · Cited by 38
“, perceiving that others are demanding perfection of oneself) (Hewitt and Flett, 1991; Sherry et al., 2004).”
BackgroundSmith, M. M., Sherry, S., Gautreau, C. M., Mushquash, A. R., Saklofske, D. H., & Snow, S. L. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.07.030 · Cited by 32
“Nonetheless, the two-factor model does not accommodate otheroriented perfectionism (demanding perfection from others; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialRosenvinge, J. H., Sundgot-Borgen, J. K., Pettersen, G., Martinsen, M., Stornæs, A. V., & Pensgaard, A. M. (2018) · Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.2147/oajsm.s156658 · Cited by 33
“17 To achieve success, for instance, in competitive sports, one needs to strive towards achieving “perfection.””
Melli, G., Bulli, F., Doron, G., & Carraresi, C. (2018) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2018.06.005 · Cited by 33
Skead, N., Rogers, S., & Doraisamy, J. (2018) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2018.06.002 · Cited by 35
Levine, S. L., Green‐Demers, I., Werner, K. M., & Milyavskaya, M. (2019) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2019.38.1.70 · Cited by 39
Ståhlberg, J., Tuominen, H., Pulkka, A., & Niemivirta, M. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.07.005 · Cited by 33
“…contingent self-worth might be connected with their perfectionistic tendencies, as it has been argued that a sense of self-worth dependent on the accomplishment of inflexible achievement criteria is the core of perfectionism, not striving for high personal standards per se (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundBłachnio, A., Cudo, A., Kot, P., Torój, M., Oppong Asante, K., Enea, V., Ben-Ezra, M., Caci, B., Dominguez-Lara, S. A., Kugbey, N., et al. (2022) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2021.1910826 · Cited by 27
“Because it has many aspects, such as self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), concerns over mistakes, personal standards, parental expectations, and parental criticism, or doubts about actions and organization (Frost et…”
Simon, P. D., Cu, S. M. O., Jesus, K. E. M. D., Go, N. T. S., Lim, K. T. F., & Say, C. L. C. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111346 · Cited by 33
Moral perfectionism and moral values, virtues, and judgments: Further investigations
Stoeber, J., & Yang, H. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.031 · Cited by 33
Perfectionism and attitudes toward cognitive enhancers (“smart drugs”)
Stoeber, J., & Hotham, S. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.011 · Cited by 33
Perfectionism and eating attitudes in Portuguese university students
Macedo, A., Soares, M. J., de Azevedo, M. H. P., Gomes, A. A., Pereira, A. T., Maia, B., & Pato, M. T. (2006) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.735 · Cited by 42
Cruce, S. E., Pashak, T. J., Handal, P. J., Munz, D. C., & Gfeller, J. D. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.013 · Cited by 36
Yao, S., Fang, J., Zhu, X., & Zuroff, D. C. (2008) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20465 · Cited by 33
“Blatt’s conception of self-criticism is similar to several dimensions of perfectionism described by Hewitt and Flett.([44]) For example, self-oriented perfectionists tend to set high, unrealistic personal standards and are often excessively self-critical; the socially prescribed perfectionists strive to meet the high…”
Cross-Cultural Validity of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale in Korea
Lee, D., & Park, H.-J. (2010) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000010365910 · Cited by 32
Relationship of perfectionism to depression and hopelessness in college students.
Ohtani, Y., & Sakurai, S. (1995) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.66.41 · Cited by 33
Nepon, T. B., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1197847 · Cited by 33
“In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the pressure to be perfect imposed on the self by others or society in general) was described as containing aspects of helplessness, hopelessness, and a lack of motivation (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationFilippello, P., Larcan, R., Sorrenti, L., Buzzai, C., Orecchio, S., & Costa, S. (2017) · Improving Schools · doi:10.1177/1365480216688554 · Cited by 42
“Research has shown that maladaptive perfectionism is associated with psychological distress (Costa, Hausenblas, Oliva, Cuzzocrea, & Larcan, 2016; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Muyan & Chang, 2015; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001).”
Curran, T. (2018) · Sport Exercise and Performance Psychology · doi:10.1037/spy0000126 · Cited by 34
The Relationship Between Body Dissatisfaction and Bulimic Symptoms in Female Collegiate Athletes
Brannan, M. E., Petrie, T. A., Greenleaf, C. A., Reel, J. J., & Carter, J. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.3.2.103 · Cited by 33
Kothari, R., Barker, C., Pistrang, N., Rozental, A., Egan, S., Wade, T., Allcott-Watson, H., Andersson, G., & Shafran, R. (2019) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.03.007 · Cited by 32
Personality and insomnia: A systematic review and narrative synthesis
Akram, U., Stevenson, J. C., Gardani, M., Allen, S. F., & Johann, A. F. (2023) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.14031 · Cited by 37
“Only two studies have examined the role of Hewitt and Flett's (1991) conceptualisation of perfectionism, both failing to yield any relationships between perfectionism and insomnia (Akram et al., 2015; Vincent & Walker, 2000).”
BackgroundRasmussen, S. A., Elliott, M. A., & O’Connor, R. C. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.011 · Cited by 31
“One multi-dimensional approach to perfectionism was proposed by Hewitt and Flett (1991) 1 , who argued that perfectionism is made up of three distinct dimensions, one intra-personal (self-oriented perfectionism) and two inter-personal dimensions (other-oriented and socially prescribed…”
BackgroundMethodFlett, G. L., Nepon, T. B., Hewitt, P. L., Zaki-Azat, J., Rose, A. L., & Swiderski, K. M. (2019) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282919879538 · Cited by 36
“…self-oriented (e.g., “When I am working on something, I cannot relax until it is perfect”), otheroriented (e.g., “I have high expectations for the people who are important to me”), and socially prescribed (e.g., “The people around me expect me to succeed at everything I do”) (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationNarcissism, Perfectionism, and Self-Termination from Treatment in Outpatient Cocaine Users
McCown, W., & Carlson, G. (2004) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/b:jore.0000047314.90953.c9 · Cited by 32
“We believe that SOP is not elevated in cocaine-abusing narcissists because they appear to lack the tenacious striving inherent in SOP (see Hewitt & Flett, 1991b ).”
BackgroundInfluentialFlett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (1995) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00089-o · Cited by 32
Self-citationChang, E. C., Chang, R., & Sanna, L. J. (2011) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-011-9376-9 · Cited by 33
Ruggiero, G. M., Bertelli, S., Boccalari, L., Centorame, F., Ditucci, A., Mela, C. L., Scarinci, A., Vinai, P., Scarone, S., & Sassaroli, S. (2008) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/bf03327615 · Cited by 33
Flett, G. L., Molnar, D. S., Nepon, T. B., & Hewitt, P. L. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.09.010 · Cited by 32
“Introduction hart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Cognitive Processes Associated with Occupational/Career Indecision
Jung, J. Y. (2013) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/0162353213506067 · Cited by 32
“…involves a perception that significant others hold excessively high standards of individuals) has been noted to incorporate elements of amotivation (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Hewitt, Flett, Turnbull-Donovan, & Mikail, 1991), and has been demonstrated to be positively related to the less…”
BackgroundA Latent Mediated Moderation of Perfectionism, Motivation, and Academic Satisfaction
Gaudreau, P., Franche, V., & Gareau, A. (2016) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282916651778 · Cited by 35
“Pioneered by Hewitt and Flett (1991), an important stream of research has focused on the distinction between intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism in which the quest for perfection originates either from the self or the social environment.”
BackgroundMethodDietl, E., Meurs, J. A., & Blickle, G. (2016) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2016.1225040 · Cited by 35
“Lastly, perfectionism shares some similarities to achievement orientation (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), and it seems likely that high socially prescribed perfectionism may moderate the positive relation between explicit achievement orientation and its reputation, because the expectations of high…”
BackgroundAnxiety as a Mediator Between Perfectionism and Eating Disorders
Egan, S. J., Watson, H. J., Kane, R. T., McEvoy, P. M., Fursland, A., & Nathan, P. R. (2013) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9516-x · Cited by 39
“Consequently, the measure we utilized for perfectionism may not be the most robust and future research should specifically examine the subscales of self-oriented and socially-prescribed perfectionism from the HMPS when investigating the link between anxiety and perfectionism in eating disorder samples.”
MethodInfluentialHadjistavropoulos, H. D., Dash, H., Hadjistavropoulos, T., & Sullivan, T.-L. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.013 · Cited by 32
Self‐Regulation: Social Anxiety and Depression1
Kocovski, N. L., & Endler, N. S. (2000) · Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2000.tb00065.x · Cited by 32
Perfectionism in Gifted High-School Students: Responses to Academic Challenge
Neumeister, K. L. S., Williams, K. K., & Cross, T. L. (2007) · Roeper Review · doi:10.1080/02783193.2007.11869219 · Cited by 32
Fleischhauer, M., Wossidlo, J., Michael, L., & Enge, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.764030 · Cited by 37
“Regarding perfectionism, our results particularly suggest a relationship between IP and the sub-dimension socially prescribed perfectionism of the MPS of Hewitt and Flett (1991). This dimension describes the belief that others expect perfection from oneself and has been consistently found to relate to negative outcome…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCuyper, K. D., Claes, L., Hermans, D., Pieters, G., & Smits, D. (2014) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2014.963591 · Cited by 35
“As such, our results confirm the three-factor structure originally described by the authors of the MPS (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, Study 2).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialArpin‐Cribbie, C. A., & Cribbie, R. A. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.020 · Cited by 32
“…(or to adopt cognitive frameworks) such as setting and striving toward extremely high standards, critically evaluating themselves in a harsh manner, overgeneralizing failure, and adhering to all-or-none patterns of thought, has been found to foster adjustment difficulties (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundShanmugasegaram, S., Flett, G. L., Madan, M., OH, P. I., Marzolini, S., Reitav, J., Hewitt, P. L., & Sturman, E. D. (2013) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105312471571 · Cited by 31
“The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt and Flett, 1991b, 2004) is a 45-item questionnaire with three 15-item subscales assessing self-oriented perfectionism (e.g. “When I am working on something, I cannot relax until it is perfect”), other-oriented perfectionism (e.g. “I have high expectations for the p…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationPerfectionism and the pursuit of personal goals: A self-determination theory analysis
Moore, E., Holding, A. C., Hope, N. H., Harvey, B., Powers, T. A., Zuroff, D. C., & Koestner, R. (2017) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-017-9654-2 · Cited by 36
Randall, E. T., Smith, K. R., Kronman, C. A., Conroy, C., Smith, A., & Simons, L. E. (2017) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2017.11.012 · Cited by 31
The Effect of Perfectionism on Career Adaptability and Career Decision-Making Difficulties
Wang, D., Hou, Z., Ni, J., Tian, L., Zhang, X., Chi, H.-Y., & Zhao, A. (2018) · Journal of Career Development · doi:10.1177/0894845318803192 · Cited by 32
“However, for students, this categorization is rarely black-and-white as individuals can possess traits of both adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).”
BackgroundFlett, G. L., Nepon, T. B., Hewitt, P. L., & Rose, A. L. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00252-w · Cited by 39
Self-citationCharacteristics of Veterinary Students: Perfectionism, Personality Factors, and Resilience
Holden, C. L. (2020) · Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · doi:10.3138/jvme.0918-111r · Cited by 31
Perfectionism and Binge Drinking in Canadian Students Making the Transition to University
Flett, G. L., Goldstein, A. L., Wall, A.-M., Hewitt, P. L., Wekerle, C., & Azzi, N. (2008) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.3200/jach.57.2.249-256 · Cited by 30
Self-citationMarsero, S., Ruggiero, G. M., Scarone, S., Bertelli, S., & Sassaroli, S. (2011) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/bf03325130 · Cited by 31
An examination of perfectionism traits and physical activity motivation
Longbottom, J.-L., Grove, B., & Dimmock, J. A. (2010) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.06.007 · Cited by 36
Rasquinha, A. M., Dunn, J. G. H., & Dunn, J. C. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.07.008 · Cited by 31
So you want to be a Rock ‘n’ Roll star? Career success of pop musicians in the Netherlands
Zwaan, K., ter Bogt, T., & Raaijmakers, Q. A. W. (2009) · Poetics · doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2009.03.004 · Cited by 31
Clinical perfectionism and eating psychopathology in athletes: The role of gender
Shanmugam, V., & Davies, B. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.047 · Cited by 39
Perfectionism and Depression: Vulnerabilities Nurses Need to Understand
Melrose, S. (2011) · Nursing Research and Practice · doi:10.1155/2011/858497 · Cited by 33
“For therapists, three key psychological instruments are available to measure perfectionism: the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS), developed by Randy Frost and colleagues; the Hewitt Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HFMPS), developed by Paul Hewitt and Gordon Flett; and the Almost Perfect Sc…”
BackgroundInfluentialLongbottom, J.-L., Grove, B., & Dimmock, J. A. (2011) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.11.003 · Cited by 40
“Perfectionism has been conceptualized as a predisposing personality trait (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a) characterized by a tendency to set extremely high standards for performance and evaluate the self in a critical manner (Cox et al., 2002; Flett & Hewitt, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialCastro, J., Soares, M. J., Pereira, A. T., & Macedo, A. (2017) · Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1590/2237-6089-2016-0042 · Cited by 40
Dalley, S. E., Toffanin, P., & Pollet, T. V. (2012) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.06.005 · Cited by 30
“Such research would also provide an opportunity to determine whether our results can be replicated using other scales that purport to measure multidimensional perfectionism (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMolnar, D. S., Sirois, F. M., Flett, G. L., & Sadava, S. (2020) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282919877754 · Cited by 29
“It may be that the original claims made by Hewitt and Flett (1993) still apply.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationCarrasco, Á., Belloch, A., & Perpiñá, C. (2009) · Análisis y Modificación de Conducta · doi:10.33776/amc.v35i152.1225 · Cited by 36
Flett, G. L., Nepon, T. B., Hewitt, P. L., Molnar, D. S., & Zhao, W. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2015.1119188 · Cited by 30
“The 10-item Effortless Perfectionism Scale developed by Travers, Randall, Bryant, Conley, and Bohnert (2015) was evaluated in a large sample of college students, and this unifactorial measure was linked with depression, anxiety, stress, low life satisfaction, and low social support.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCultural Similarities in Perfectionism
Smith, M. M., Saklofske, D. H., Yan, G., & Sherry, S. (2015) · Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development · doi:10.1177/0748175615596785 · Cited by 30
“For example, research suggests familial and cultural pressures to be perfect are present in both Canadian and Chinese cultures (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Striegel-Moore & Smolak, 2000).”
BackgroundMethod
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
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