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Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.
Abstract
This article attempted to demonstrate that the perfectionism construct is multidimensional, comprising both personal and social components, and that these components contribute to severe levels of psychopathology. We describe three dimensions of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Four studies confirm the multidimensionality of the construct and show that these dimensions can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner. Finally, a study with 77 psychiatric patients shows that self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism relate differentially to indices of personality disorders and other psychological maladjustment. A multidimensional approach to the study of perfectionism is warranted, particularly in terms of the association between perfectionism and maladjustment.
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.86 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“According to the multidimensional view of perfectionism, two higher-order dimensions of trait perfectionism are commonly identified from the most frequently used and well-validated measures in the field”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“In contrast, the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001), revised, each assesses perfectionistic concerns with one subscale, socially-prescribed perfectionism (SPP) for the MPS-HF, and discrepancy, for the APSR.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Hewitt and Flett (1991) along with Hewitt, Flett, Besser, Sherry, and McGee (2003) have provided a strong theoretical foundation and direct empirical evidence to support a multidimensional conceptualization of perfectionism that includes both intra and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as Hewitt and Flett (1991)
In the citing paper
“with studies using the discrepancy subscale of the APSR (Slaney et al., 2001) demonstrating effects that were almost twice the magnitude of those found with the socially prescribed perfectionism subscale of the MPS-HF (P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991)”
From A Meta–Analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism (2017) · cites this paper as P. L. Hewitt & Flett, 1991
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Items 701–800 of 1,032
Perfectionism in Gifted Students: An Overview of Current Research
Neumeister, K. S. (2007) · Gifted Education International · doi:10.1177/026142940702300306 · Cited by 42
“With the advent of three multidimensional perfectionism scales (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991;”
BackgroundPositive perfectionism, negative perfectionism, and emotional eating: The mediating role of stress
Wang, H., & Li, J. (2017) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.12.012 · Cited by 50
“Perfectionism has long been considered a pathology-causing personality trait (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundPerfectionism, Burnout, and Depression in Youth Soccer Players: A Longitudinal Study
Smith, E. P., Hill, A. P., & Hall, H. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2017-0015 · Cited by 42
“Future studies might consider using other measures alongside or instead of the brief HMPS (Cox, Enns & Clara, 2002; Hewitt & Flett, 1991) to capture perfectionism (e.g., Hill, Appleton, & Mallinson-Howard, 2016).”
MethodHewitt, P. L., Smith, M. M., Deng, X., Chen, C., Ko, A., Flett, G. L., & Paterson, R. J. (2020) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/pst0000281 · Cited by 51
“Hewitt et al. (2017) conceptualized perfectionism as having three overarching components: trait perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), perfectionistic cognitions (Flett, Hewitt, Blankstein, & Gray, 1998), and perfectionistic self-presentation (Hewitt, Flett, Sherry, et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPiotrowski, K. (2020) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.492 · Cited by 51
“Perfectionism and parental identity formation Self-oriented perfectionism manifests itself in setting very high expectations and striving for perfection in everything that is done (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialStähl, J., Acharki, M., Kresimon, M., Völler, F., & Gibbons, H. (2015) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.06.002 · Cited by 45
“…in perfectionism research to conceptualize this trait, in particular, group-based models classifying types of perfectionists (e.g., Hamachek, 1978: normal perfectionismvs. neurotic perfectionism) and dimensional traitmodels of perfectionism (e.g., Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt and Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundStoeber, J., & Corr, P. J. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.045 · Cited by 43
“One of its most influential and widely researched models of perfectionism is that of Hewitt and Flett's (1991) which differentiates three forms of perfectionism: selforiented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed.”
BackgroundFletcher, K. L., Shim, S. S., & Wang, C. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.02.001 · Cited by 42
Maladaptive Perfectionism, Adult Attachment, and Self‐Esteem in College Students
Rice, K. G., & Lopez, F. G. (2004) · Journal of College Counseling · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2004.tb00243.x · Cited by 44
Perfectionism in Sport, Dance, and Exercise
Hill, A. P., Mallinson‐Howard, S. H., Madigan, D. J., & Jowett, G. E. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119568124.ch7 · Cited by 53
Maladaptive Core Beliefs and their Relation to Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Koerner, N., Tallon, K., & Kusec, A. (2015) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2015.1042989 · Cited by 50
“…current study as these are rarely assessed in anxiety disorders and when they are assessed, the beliefs are ultimately centered on the self (e.g., “If others really get to know me, they will reject me”; Clark &Wells, 1995; “Others think I am okay, even when I do not succeed”; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundA short empirical note on perfectionism and flourishing
Stoeber, J., & Corr, P. J. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.036 · Cited by 42
“A possible answer to this question comes from the observation that perfectionism is multidimensional (Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Asbhy, 2001) and that its various dimensions show different associations with psychological…”
InfluentialHrabluik, C., Latham, G. P., & McCarthy, J. M. (2012) · International Public Management Journal · doi:10.1080/10967494.2012.684010 · Cited by 43
“This is because goals perceived to be very high can cause psychological distress (Beck 1967; Hewitt and Flett 1991), and hence impair an individual’s performance (Burns 1980; Frost and Marten 1990; Hollender 1965) due to the need on the part of the person who sets them for perfection.”
BackgroundConceptualizations of Perfectionism, Health, and Well-Being: An Introductory Overview
Sirois, F. M., & Molnar, D. S. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_1 · Cited by 47
Shim, S. S., Rubenstein, L. D., & Drapeau, C. W. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.016 · Cited by 43
Perfectionism predicts injury in junior athletes: Preliminary evidence from a prospective study
Madigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., Forsdyke, D., Dayson, M., & Passfield, L. (2017) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2017.1322709 · Cited by 54
Lee, Y., Ha, J. H., & Jue, J. (2019) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104649 · Cited by 41
How maladaptive cognitions contribute to the development of problematic social media use
Fioravanti, G., Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Rugai, L., & Casale, S. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100267 · Cited by 46
Self-citationMultidimensional Models of Perfectionism and Procrastination: Seeking Determinants of Both
Sederlund, A. P., Burns, L. R., & Rogers, W. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17145099 · Cited by 65
“Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) The MPS contains three subscales measuring three subsets of perfectionism that are applied across the self and social contexts: self-oriented perfectionism (SOP), other-oriented perfectionism (OOP), and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) [90].”
BackgroundArpin‐Cribbie, C. A., Irvine, J., Ritvo, P., Cribbie, R. A., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2008) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-007-0065-2 · Cited by 39
“…Ritvo School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON, Canada M3J 1P3 P. L. Hewitt University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada the multidimensional theories of perfectionism outlined by Frost et al. (1990) and by Hewitt and Flett (1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationRandall, E. T., Bohnert, A. M., & Travers, L. V. (2015) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.005 · Cited by 42
“In fact, parents exhibiting high levels of SPP are perceived by their children as critical and unsupportive, while those with high levels OOP are perceived as controlling (Randolph & Dykman, 1998; Wintre & Sugar, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialMediating the effects of self-criticism and self-oriented perfectionism on goal pursuit
Powers, T. A., Milyavskaya, M., & Koestner, R. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.031 · Cited by 41
Aldea, M. A., Rice, K. G., Gormley, B., & Rojas, A. (2010) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.09.003 · Cited by 40
“…literature has resulted from the development of several useful measures to assess perfectionism that have impressive psychometric qualities (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001), their direct clinical utility has not been a focus for their use.”
BackgroundKobori, O., & Tanno, Y. (2005) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-005-2835-4 · Cited by 47
“Although SOP was originally introduced as a dysfunctional personality trait (Hewitt & Flett, 1991), the relationship of SOP to various indices of maladjustment has not been sufficiently distinct in comparison to other measures of perfectionism (e.g., Socially Prescribed Perfectionism).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPersonality Factors and Disordered Eating in Young Women with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Pollock‐BarZiv, S. M., & Davis, C. A. (2005) · Psychosomatics · doi:10.1176/appi.psy.46.1.11 · Cited by 41
Dimitrovsky, L., Levy‐Shiff, R., & Schattner-Zanany, I. (2002) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980209604824 · Cited by 40
Kung, C. S. J., & Chan, C. K. Y. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.10.011 · Cited by 40
Rinn, A. N. (2023) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00169862231197780 · Cited by 63
“Two constructs frequently examined in research on gifted individuals include emotional intelligence (see Mayer et al., 2004; Salovey & Mayer, 1990) and perfectionism (see Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Smith et al., 2022).”
BackgroundMethodPerfectionism, over commitment to work, and burnout in employees seeking workplace counselling
Philp, M., Egan, S. J., & Kane, R. T. (2011) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9536.2011.00028.x · Cited by 43
Kobori, O., Hayakawa, M., & Tanno, Y. (2009) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.07.003 · Cited by 41
Is perfectionism associated with academic burnout through repetitive negative thinking?
Garratt‐Reed, D., Howell, J. A., Hayes, L., & Boyes, M. E. (2018) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.5004 · Cited by 46
Neural Basis of Response Bias on the Stop Signal Task in Misophonia
Eijsker, N., Schröder, A., Smit, D. J. A., van Wingen, G. A., & Denys, D. A. J. P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00765 · Cited by 39
Hill, A. P., Robson, S. J., & Stamp, G. M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.015 · Cited by 40
Watson, H. J., Raykos, B. C., Street, H., Fursland, A., & Nathan, P. R. (2010) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.20788 · Cited by 41
“, family, friends) hold excessively high expectations for oneself coupled with a strong self-desire to attain these standards.(4) In nonclinical samples, SOP and SPP are associated with indices of ED psychopathology.”
BackgroundDimensions of perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation in social phobia
Jain, M., & Sudhir, P. M. (2010) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2010.08.006 · Cited by 48
“Perfectionism has been identified as a vulnerability factor in the development of depression (Chang and Sanna, 2001; Hewitt and Flett, 1991; Hewitt et al., 1996), and other psychological problems such as hopelessness, suicidality, (Hewitt et al., 1998; O’Connor and O’Connor, 2003), eating disorders…”
BackgroundGrilo, C. M. (2003) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1046/j.0001-690x.2003.00223.x · Cited by 42
Birth-Order Effects in the Academically Talented
Parker, W. D. (1998) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/001698629804200104 · Cited by 40
Silverman, L. K. (1999) · Gifted Education International · doi:10.1177/026142949901300303 · Cited by 47
“Hewitt and Flett (1991a) identified three components of perfectionism: self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed: Self-oriented perfectionism is an intrapersonal dimension characterized by a strong motivation to be perfect, setting and striving for unrealistic self-standards, focusing…”
Finch, J., Waters, A. M., & Farrell, L. J. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.169 · Cited by 49
The Relationship between Disordered Eating, Perceived Parenting, and Perfectionistic Schemas
Deas, S., Power, K., Collin, P., Yellowlees, A., & Grierson, D. (2010) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9319-x · Cited by 46
“There does appear to exist a similar relationship between perfectionism and psychological dysfunction more generally, as individuals with depression and anxiety demonstrate elevated levels of perfectionism compared to controls (Pacht 1984), but not in comparison to those suffering from AN (Hewitt and Flett 1991).”
ResultAssessing Self-Critical Perfectionism in Clinical Depression
Clara, I. P., Cox, B. J., & Enns, M. W. (2007) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890701317046 · Cited by 42
“…and Flett (1991)—have independently developed theoretical models of the facets of perfectionism and developed multidimensional scales to assess these facets: the Frost et al. (1990) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost MPS) and the Hewitt and Flett (1991) scale of the same name (HF MPS).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialExamining Mutual Suppression Effects in the Assessment of Perfectionism Cognitions
Stoeber, J., Kobori, O., & Brown, A. (2014) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191114534884 · Cited by 44
“…and Item 10 (“No matter how much I do, it’s never enough”) are nearidentical to items of Hewitt and Flett’s MPS subscale capturing socially prescribed perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the Almost Perfect Subscale–Revised subscale capturing perfectionistic discrepancies (Slaney et al., 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPerfectionism and Achievement Motivation in High-Ability Students
Neumeister, K. L. S., Fletcher, K. L., & Burney, V. H. (2015) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/0162353215592502 · Cited by 41
“In contrast, Frost and colleagues’ (1990) MPS focused less on the origin of unrealistic standards for the individual, and instead, focused on six dimensions of perfectionism, including excessive concern for mistakes, doubting of one’s actions, personal standards, perception of high parental expectations, perception of…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Social and Emotional World of the Gifted
Rinn, A. N., & Majority, K. L. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77004-8_4 · Cited by 43
A multidimensional approach to perfectionism and self-compassion
Linnett, R. J., & Kibowski, F. (2019) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1669695 · Cited by 50
“The adaptive dimension (PS) was represented 232 by one factor, “Striving for Excellence”, which focuses on self-directed perfectionistic 233 behaviors that have a motivational aspect (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 2004; Hill et al., 2004).”
BackgroundMethodPerfectionism, Shame, and Aggression in Depressive Patients With Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Fjermestad‐Noll, J., Ronningstam, E. F., Bach, B., Rosenbaum, B., & Simonsen, E. H. (2020) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2020.34.supp.25 · Cited by 45
“Self-oriented perfectionism has been found to correlate positively with both narcissism and depression (Freudenstein et al., 2012; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialZeng, P., Zhao, X., Xie, X., Long, J., Jiang, Q., Wang, Y., Lin, Q., Lei, L., & Wang, P. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110017 · Cited by 44
Are patients with chronic fatigue syndrome perfectionistic—or were they? A case-control study
Luyten, P., Houdenhove, B. V., Cosyns, N., & den Broeck, A. V. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.10.023 · Cited by 39
Zuroff, D. C., & Blatt, S. J. (2002) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.21.5.473.22622 · Cited by 39
“Imber et al. (1990) found that 11 items loaded substantially (> .”
BackgroundDunkley, D. M., Sanislow, C. A., Grilo, C. M., & McGlashan, T. H. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.009 · Cited by 39
The reliability and validity of the positive and negative perfectionism scale
Egan, S. J., Piek, J. P., Dyck, M. J., & Kane, R. T. (2011) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9552.2011.00029.x · Cited by 47
The Factor Structure of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale in University Students
Stallman, H. M., & Hurst, C. P. (2011) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9544.2010.00010.x · Cited by 38
Williams, C. J., & Cropley, M. (2013) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105313488971 · Cited by 37
“…increase in research concerned with perfectionism coupled with the development of two multidimensional methods of assessment (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt and Flett, 1991a) has greatly enhanced our understanding of the perfectionism construct; however, there still remains a lack of consensus…”
BackgroundKerrigan, D. L., Chau, V., King, M. A., Holman, E. S., Joffe, A., & Sibinga, E. M. (2017) · Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1177/2156587217719787 · Cited by 44
A Test of Perfectionistic Vulnerability Following Competitive Failure Among College Athletes
Curran, T., & Hill, A. P. (2018) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2018-0059 · Cited by 40
“Research supports the 5 validity and reliability of the scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991a).”
BackgroundInteractive effect of perfectionism dimensions on depressive symptoms: A reply to
Douilliez, C., & Lefèvre, F. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.005 · Cited by 44
“The multidimensional perfectionism scale (HMPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Labrecque, Stephenson, Boivin, & Marchand, 1998) and the multidimensional perfectionism scale (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990; French version: Bouvard et al., 2000) are two widely used questionnaires assessing multidimensional…”
BackgroundMethodMultidimensional self reports as a measure of characteristics in people with eating disorders.
Davies, H., Liao, P.-C., Campbell, I. C., & Tchanturia, K. (2009) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/bf03327804 · Cited by 38
The role of perfectionism in postpartum depression and symptomatology
Maia, B., Pereira, A. T., Marques, M., Bos, S. C., Soares, M. J., Valente, J., Gomes, A. A., de Azevedo, M. H. P., & Macedo, A. (2012) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-012-0310-2 · Cited by 46
Proost, K., Derous, E., Schreurs, B. H. J., Hagtvet, K. A., & Witte, K. D. (2008) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2008.00405.x · Cited by 42
Parental Perfectionism and Children's Test Anxiety
Beshārat, M. A. (2003) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.2003.93.3f.1049 · Cited by 42
Stoeber, J., & Hotham, S. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.04.023 · Cited by 46
“The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: Reliability, validity, and psychometric properties in psychiatric samples.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialLussier, B., Chaker, N. N., Hartmann, N. N., & Rangarajan, D. (2022) · Industrial Marketing Management · doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2022.04.015 · Cited by 37
Tourreix, E., Besançon, M., & Gonthier, C. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11070141 · Cited by 48
The relationship between perfectionism, agency, and communion: A longitudinal mixed methods analysis
Mackinnon, S. P., Sherry, S., & Pratt, M. W. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.02.007 · Cited by 37
“…and unrealistically high personal standards.1 Evidence suggests perfectionistic concerns and strivings have strong test–retest reliability and influence behaviour and emotions across contexts, consistent with their conceptualization as personality traits (Graham et al., 2010; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundDickinson, M., & Dickinson, D. A. G. (2014) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2014.912625 · Cited by 39
Parent perfectionism and psychopathology symptoms and child perfectionism
Cook, L. C., & Kearney, C. A. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.020 · Cited by 37
“Factor analyses indicate that the MPS has 3 factors consistent with its proposed structure (Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialTransferring More than Learned in Training: Employees' and managers' (over)generalization of skills
Chiaburu, D. S., Sawyer, K., & Thoroughgood, C. (2010) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2010.00520.x · Cited by 38
Perfectionism and Health Behaviors: A Self- Regulation Resource Perspective
Sirois, F. M. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_3 · Cited by 42
Nguyen, T.-V. T., & Deci, E. L. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.020 · Cited by 45
“They are likely to see value in the tasks that they undertake, and enjoy the challenge of mastering those tasks (Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Mills & Blankstein, 2000).”
BackgroundGäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., & Klein, A. G. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160 · Cited by 37
“, 1990) and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale MPS-HF (Hewitt and Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialJoint trajectories of depression and perfectionism across adolescence and childhood risk factors
Vaillancourt, T., & Haltigan, J. D. (2017) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579417000979 · Cited by 43
Measuring perfectionism in children: a systematic review of the mental health literature
Leone, E. M., & Wade, T. D. (2018) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-017-1078-8 · Cited by 37
Flow in the Academic Domain: The Role of Perfectionism and Engagement
Ljubin-Golub, T., Rijavec, M., & Jurčec, L. (2018) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-018-0369-2 · Cited by 38
Rosewall, J. K., Gleaves, D. H., & Latner, J. D. (2018) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-018-0225-z · Cited by 37
Wellness Among University-level Music Students: A Study of the Predictors of Subjective Vitality
Miksza, P. J., Evans, P., & McPherson, G. E. (2019) · Musicae Scientiae · doi:10.1177/1029864919860554 · Cited by 39
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) describe three dimensions of perfectionism—selforiented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism— and suggest that each dimension has a unique association with a variety of psychological outcomes (e.g., behavior, motivation,…”
BackgroundInfluentialStornæs, A. V., Rosenvinge, J. H., Sundgot‐Borgen, J., Pettersen, G., & Friborg, O. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02039 · Cited by 43
“, 2000) is derived from the Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale for adults (Hewitt and Flett, 1991), and measures the two dimensions “self-oriented perfectionism” (SOP, 12 items) and “socially prescribed perfectionism” (SPP, 10 items).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOverparenting and Perfectionistic Concerns Predict Academic Entitlement in Young Adults
Fletcher, K. L., Pierson, E. E., Neumeister, K. L. S., & Finch, W. H. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01663-7 · Cited by 38
Perfectionism and foreign language achievement: The mediating role of emotions and achievement goals
Barabadi, E., & Khajavy, G. H. (2020) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100874 · Cited by 42
Chang, E. C., & Sanna, L. J. (2011) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2011.627962 · Cited by 47
Social-evaluative versus self-evaluative appearance concerns in Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Anson, M., Veale, D., & de Silva, P. (2012) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.09.003 · Cited by 37
Affect variation across days of the week: influences of perfectionism and academic motivation
Harvey, B., Milyavskaya, M., Hope, N. H., Powers, T. A., Saffran, M., & Koestner, R. (2015) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9480-3 · Cited by 40
Wang, K. T. (2011) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207594.2011.626050 · Cited by 38
“Similarly, Family Standards and Family Discrepancy are also specific types of Socially Prescribed Perfectionism, a subscale of Hewitt and Flett's ( 1991 ) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, which looks at perceived perfectionism from others.”
BackgroundPerfectionism, acne and appearance concerns
Hanstock, T. L., & O’Mahony, J. F. (2002) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00120-9 · Cited by 37
“Hewitt and Flett (1991a) postulated a tripartite model of perfectionism.”
BackgroundPerfectionism and Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms
Rice, K. G., & Pence, S. L. (2006) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-006-7488-4 · Cited by 36
“In a study of college students, Hewitt and Flett (1991) found significant associations between SOP and SPP scores, and scores on the obsessivecompulsive subscale of the Symptom Checklist-90 (Derogatis, 1983).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCOGNATIVE-BEHAVIORAL MODELS OF SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER
Roth, D. A., & Heimberg, R. G. (2001) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(05)70261-6 · Cited by 37
Body Dissatisfaction: A Feature of Bulimia, Depression, or Both?
Joiner, T. E., Wonderlich, S. A., Metalsky, G. I., et al. (1995) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.1995.14.4.339 · Cited by 37
Adverse childhood experiences and multidimensional perfectionism in young adults
Chen, C., Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.03.042 · Cited by 37
Self-citationFearn, M., Marino, C., Spada, M. M., & Kolubinski, D. C. (2021) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-021-00404-4 · Cited by 48
The Relationship of Perfectionism to Affective Variables in Gifted and Highly Able Children
Christopher, M. M., & Shewmaker, J. W. (2010) · Gifted Child Today · doi:10.1177/107621751003300307 · Cited by 40
“This is a downward extension of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
BackgroundMultidimensional Sexual Perfectionism
Stoeber, J., Harvey, L. N., Almeida, I., & Lyons, E. (2013) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0135-8 · Cited by 44
“For example, self-oriented perfectionism has shown positive correlations with anxiety and depression (Hewitt & Flett, 1991, 2004); and other-oriented perfectionism has shown positive correlations with problematic interpersonal qualities such as hostility, blaming others, and antagonism (Hewitt &…”
BackgroundInfluentialSherry, D. L., Sherry, S., Hewitt, P. L., Mushquash, A. R., & Flett, G. L. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.002 · Cited by 35
“Means for all scales (see Table 2) were within one standard deviation of previous research involving university samples (Graham et al., 2010; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Sherry et al., 2003), suggesting our means are comparable to earlier research.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationPerfectionism and Chinese Gifted Learners
Fong, R. W., & Yuen, M. (2014) · Roeper Review · doi:10.1080/02783193.2014.884202 · Cited by 38
“Fundamentally, it is worth considering whether the existing perfectionism scales, including Hewitt’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost et al., 1990), have overemphasized the negative aspect of perfectionism (Chan, 2007b, 2012).”
BackgroundMethodTissot, A. M., & Crowther, J. H. (2008) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.7.734 · Cited by 39
“Hewitt and Flett (1991) have suggested that perfectionism encompasses three separate dimensions: self–oriented perfectionism (SOP), socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), and other oriented perfectionism (OOP).”
BackgroundMethodAre music performance anxiety and performance boost perceived as extremes of the same continuum?
Simoens, V. L., Puttonen, S., & Tervaniemi, M. H. (2013) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735613499200 · Cited by 39
“…audience than when not”) – Self-oriented perfectionism (e.g., “I must work to my full potential at all times”) based on the self-oriented perfectionism subscale of Hewitt and Flett (1991) – Avoidance (e.g., “I feel relieved when a performance is cancelled”) – Acting as coping (e.g., “When I’m not…”
BackgroundDunkley, D. M., Solomon‐Krakus, S., & Moroz, M. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-18582-8_7 · Cited by 38
Taylor, J. J. N., Papay, K., Webb, J. B., & Reeve, C. L. L. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.006 · Cited by 38
Multidimensional perfectionism, depression, and anxiety: Tests of a social support mediation model
Gnilka, P. B., & Broda, M. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.031 · Cited by 37
Levine, S. L., Milyavskaya, M., & Zuroff, D. C. (2019) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702619865966 · Cited by 37
“Indeed, self-critical perfectionism is strongly correlated to depressive symptoms and mental-health problems (Frost et al., 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991).”
Martini, M., Marzola, E., Brustolin, A., & Daga, G. A. (2021) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2863 · Cited by 42
Lin, G., Szczygiel, D. D., & Piotrowski, K. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111805 · Cited by 36
Metadata
- Authors
- Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-470
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4239426612
- Cited by
- 3,378
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 185 · 2025: 213 · 2024: 153 · 2023: 155 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 189 · 2020: 181 · 2019: 153 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 158 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 164 · 2014: 158 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 140
- FWCI
- 18.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-perfectionism, social perfectionism, psychopathology, conceptualization, assessment, personality traits
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Personality Disorders, Personality Tests, Risk Factors, Self Concept, Social Adjustment, Social Desirability, Type A Personality
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