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Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.
Abstract
This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem. There has been a resurgence of interest in examining whether aspects of the self-concept are stable or malleable (Markus & Kunda, 1986). On the one hand, there is considerable evidence that the self-concept is persistent and stable and that people will actively seek information that confirms their self-concept and reject information that threatens their general view of self
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.85 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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Social class, social self-esteem, and conspicuous consumption
Oh, G. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06318 · Cited by 68
“Since social self-esteem is most relevant to one's self-image in public and social inclusion (Heatherton and Polivy, 1991), a low level of social self-esteem would be closely related to compensatory reactions to gain positive self-worth in the social domain.”
BackgroundInfluentialA naturalistic study of fat talk and its behavioral and affective consequences
Jones, M. D., Crowther, J. H., & Ciesla, J. A. (2014) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.05.007 · Cited by 55
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Laughing at the Looking Glass: Does Humor Style Serve as an Interpersonal Signal?
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Avi Besser, A., & Jett, S. E. (2013) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491301100118 · Cited by 64
“Responses for the State Self-Esteem Scale were made on scales ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely).”
MethodInfluentialBartz, J. A., & Lydon, J. E. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.77 · Cited by 54
Belmi, P. R. V., & Neale, M. A. (2014) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.03.002 · Cited by 55
“We administered the full state self-esteem scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991, a = .92) and Rosenberg's (1965) self-esteem scale (a = .91), and calculated a composite for each scale, with higher scores representing higher self-esteem.”
MethodMeier, L. L., Semmer, N. K., & Hupfeld, J. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208331337 · Cited by 54
“In line with this, several studies have shown that people with low self-esteem feel less accepted by other people and more excluded from significant groups (e.g., Leary et al., 1995) and that they have greater concern about how they are evaluated by others (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
ResultPerry, S., Hardeman, R. R., Burke, S. E., Cunningham, B. A., Burgess, D. J., & van Ryn, M. (2015) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-015-0170-3 · Cited by 62
“Regression analyses were conducted to test whether medical student acceptance mediated the interactive effect of discrimination and racial identity centrality on self-esteem and well-being at high, but not low, levels of everyday discrimination using model 8 of Hayes’ PROCESS macro [31].”
BackgroundMethodThe role of self-esteem, negative affect and normative influence in impulse buying
Bandyopadhyay, N. (2016) · Marketing Intelligence & Planning · doi:10.1108/mip-02-2015-0037 · Cited by 59
L’estime de soi : analyse de concept
Doré, C. (2017) · Recherche en soins infirmiers · doi:10.3917/rsi.129.0018 · Cited by 81
Self-Esteem, Self-Prediction, and Living up to Commitments
Heatherton, T. F., & Ambady, N. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9_7 · Cited by 54
“Therapeutic interventions aimed at increasing dieters' acceptance of their physical appearance increased both their state and their Lnit self-esteem (Ciliska, 1990; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ).”
Self-citationMcDonald, H., Karg, A., & Vocino, A. (2012) · Sport Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.smr.2012.05.003 · Cited by 54
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Elvers, P., Fischinger, T., & Steffens, J. (2017) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735617707354 · Cited by 69
“Self-esteem can be considered as a trait, which is more or less stable over time, or as a state, which is fluctuating and moment-specific (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
Backgroundden Berg, A. E. V., & Beute, F. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101641 · Cited by 63
Gebauer, J. E., Leary, M. R., & Neberich, W. (2011) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611431644 · Cited by 59
“Additionally, an online validation study in German language (N ¼ 347) showed that our measure was strongly interrelated (a ¼ .77) with the German version of the State Self-Esteem Scale (Rudolph, Schröder-Abé, & Schütz, 2009).”
BackgroundAppearance Self-Esteem in Systemic Sclerosis
Malcarne, V. L., Hansdóttir, I., Greenbergs, H. L., Clements, P. J., & Weisman, M. H. (1999) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1018783329341 · Cited by 53
“On the Appearance subscale of the State Se lf-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) , women with SSc obtaine d lower scores than those reported in previous studie s of female colle ge students.”
MethodResultResearching state shame with the experiential shame scale.
Turner, J. E. (2014) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2013.818927 · Cited by 52
“The State Self-esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) consists of 15 selfreport items that students rated on a 9-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 9 = strongly agree).”
MethodWakslak, C. J., Jost, J. T., & Bauer, P. (2011) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2011.29.3.288 · Cited by 52
Heck, P. R., & Krueger, J. I. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000105 · Cited by 52
“The SSES yielded separate scores for performance and social self-esteem.”
MethodTeresi, J. A., Burnes, D. P. R., Skowron, E. A., Dutton, M. A., Mosqueda, L. A., Lachs, M. S., & Pillemer, K. A. (2016) · Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1080/08946566.2016.1240053 · Cited by 52
Self-concept and mood changes associated with aerobic dance
McInman, A. D., & Berger, B. G. (1993) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049539308259130 · Cited by 52
Stigma and its correlates in people living with lung cancer: A cross‐sectional study from China
Liu, X. H., Zhong, J. D., Zhang, J. E., Cheng, Y., & Bu, X. (2019) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.5245 · Cited by 51
“State selfesteem is a perception of changes in one's level of social inclusion, given a particular state or situation.(17) People with low self-esteem may be more likely to perceive others' reactions as rejection and consequently to feel more severe levels of stigma than people with high self-esteem.”
BackgroundComparing the facets of the big two in global evaluation of self versus other people
Abele, A. E., & Hauke-Forman, N. (2019) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2639 · Cited by 53
Wang, L., Guo, Z., Zhang, G., & Xu, X. (2022) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104557 · Cited by 51
Self-sacrificial leadership and follower self-esteem: When collective identification matters.
Cremer, D. D., van Knippenberg, D., van Dijke, M., & Bos, A. E. R. (2006) · Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/1089-2699.10.3.233 · Cited by 51
Development and validation of the brief‐satisfaction with appearance scale for systemic sclerosis
Jewett, L. R., Hudson, M., Haythornthwaite, J. A., Heinberg, L. J., Wigley, F. M., Baron, M. G., & Thombs, B. D. (2010) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/acr.20307 · Cited by 52
Rollero, C. (2013) · International Journal of Social Psychology Revista de Psicología Social · doi:10.1174/021347413807719166 · Cited by 63
“The State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) is a wide used 20- item inventory that measures momentary self-esteem.”
MethodEthnic Stigma as a Contextual Experience: A Possible Selves Perspective
Brown, L. M. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298242005 · Cited by 50
Self-Deception versus Self-Esteem in Buffering the Negative Effects of Failure
Johnson, E. A., Vincent, N., & Ross, L. M. (1997) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1006/jrpe.1997.2187 · Cited by 50
Hoegg, J., Scott, M. L., Morales, A. C., & Dahl, D. W. (2013) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2013.07.003 · Cited by 50
How believing in affirmative action quotas affects White women’s self-image
Unzueta, M. M., Gutiérrez, A. S., & Ghavami, N. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.017 · Cited by 50
“Finally, Study 2 assesses the effect of self-perceived beneficiary status and quota beliefs on a more established self-image measure – state self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMartijn, C., Vanderlinden, M., Roefs, A., Huijding, J., & Jansen, A. T. M. (2010) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020770 · Cited by 50
Jens Blechert, A., Ulrich Ansorge, A., Beckmann, S., & Tuschen‐Caffier, B. (2010) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291710000395 · Cited by 50
“Several models of selfesteem distinguish at least an academic/professional/ school ability domain (termed ‘performance ’ domain in the following) from a social/interpersonal domain (termed ‘ interpersonal ’ domain in the following), and a physical attractiveness/appearance domain (e.g. Shavelson et al. 1976 ; Fleming…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe (Ironic) Dove Effect: Use of Acceptance Cues for Larger Body Types Increases Unhealthy Behaviors
Lin, L., & McFerran, B. (2015) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1509/jppm.14.020 · Cited by 55
“…larger people (e.g., “lazy/industrious,” “unattractive/attractive”), and the six-item appearance esteem subscale taken from the state self-esteem scale (Heatherton and Polivy 1991), which included items such as “I feel satisfied with the way my body looks right now” and “I am pleased with my…”
MethodMolina, B., David, M., Jain, R., Amselem, M., Ruiz-Rodríguez, R., May, Y., Kerrouche, N., Georgantopoulos, S. P., Radeau, T., & Boineau, D. (2015) · Dermatologic Surgery · doi:10.1097/dss.0000000000000548 · Cited by 50
Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Crosby, R., Engel, S., & Wonderlich, S. (2019) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2019.1613847 · Cited by 47
“Four items from the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) appearance subscale was used to measure momentary appearance concerns.”
MethodParental bonding and depressive affect: The mediating role of coping resources
Matheson, K., Kelly, O., Cole, B., Tannenbaum, B. M., Dodd, C., & Anisman, H. (2005) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466605x37477 · Cited by 54
Beauty in the "I" of the Beholder: Effects of Idealized Media Portrayals on Implicit Self-Image
Gurari, I., Hetts, J. J., & Strube, M. (2006) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2803_6 · Cited by 49
“In the next stage, participants completed three widely-used self-report measures of self-evaluation, including (a) the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) which assesses people’s thoughts about their global traits, (b) the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) which measures how people feel at…”
BackgroundBarreto, M., Ellemers, N., Scholten, W., & Smith, H. J. (2009) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466608x400830 · Cited by 49
Subjective Social Status and Well-Being: The Role of Referent Abstraction
Haught, H. M., Rose, J. P., Geers, A. L., & Brown, J. A. (2015) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2015.1015476 · Cited by 55
“To assess self-esteem, we used the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
MethodWood, C., Gladwell, V., & Barton, J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0108701 · Cited by 49
“Future research would benefit from the use of a state self-esteem scale [31,43].”
BackgroundA Repeated Measures Experiment of Green Exercise to Improve Self-Esteem in UK School Children
Reed, K. E., Wood, C., Barton, J., Pretty, J., Cohen, D. D., & SANDERCOCK, G. R. H. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069176 · Cited by 48
“Future studies would benefit from the use of a state self-esteem questionnaire [41].”
BackgroundPsychological, endocrine and neural responses to social evaluation in subclinical depression
Dedovic, K., Duchesne, A., Engert, V., Lue, S. D., Andrews, J., Efanov, S. I., Beaudry, T., & Pruessner, J. C. (2013) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst151 · Cited by 54
Bohner, G., & Lampridis, E. (2004) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430204039974 · Cited by 49
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Doyle, D. M., Begeny, C. T., Barreto, M., & Morton, T. A. (2021) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02029-1 · Cited by 54
The memory trace of a stressful episode
Bierbrauer, A., Fellner, M.-C., Heinen, R. M., Wolf, O. T., & Axmacher, N. (2021) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.044 · Cited by 53
Ozimek, P., & Förster, J. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.056 · Cited by 51
Implicit and explicit appraisals of the importance of intrusive thoughts.
Teachman, B., Woody, S., & Magee, J. C. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.05.005 · Cited by 50
Testing the Generality of the Name Letter Effect: Name Initials and Everyday Attitudes
Hodson, G., & Olson, J. M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205274895 · Cited by 48
“Six items from the state self-esteem scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) were completed immediately after the 4-min task and served as a manipulation check (α = .77).”
MethodThe Content and Function of Gender Self-stereotypes: An Exploratory Investigation
Oswald, D. L., & Lindstedt, K. (2006) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9026-y · Cited by 48
“Participants completed the State Self-Esteem Scale ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ).”
MethodMartens, A., Greenberg, J., & Allen, J. J. B. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868308323224 · Cited by 51
Being Forgotten: Implications for the Experience of Meaning in Life
King, L. A., & Geise, A. C. (2011) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2010.522620 · Cited by 44
“Finally, participants completed the State Social Self-Esteem Scale ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ; sample item: “There are many people who care about me,” α = .”
MethodUse of Objectification Theory to Examine the Effects of a Media Literacy Intervention on Women
Choma, B. L., Foster, M. D., & Radford, E. (2007) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9200-x · Cited by 47
“Self-esteem The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton and Polivy 1991) was administered to assess participants’ performance esteem (e.”
MethodTrottier, K., Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2007) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2007.26.2.155 · Cited by 47
Self-citationPoulsen, J. R., & Kashy, D. A. (2011) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430211430517 · Cited by 48
“(Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
Preliminary psychometrics of the Existential Distress Scale in patients with advanced cancer
Lo, C., Panday, T., Zeppieri, J., Rydall, A., Murphy-Kane, P., Zimmermann, C., & Rodin, G. (2017) · European Journal of Cancer Care · doi:10.1111/ecc.12597 · Cited by 44
Izuma, K., Kennedy, K., Fitzjohn, A., Sedikides, C., & Shibata, K. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000114 · Cited by 48
“Following the fMRI scanning, each participant completed the self-esteem IAT (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) as well as two explicit self-esteem measures: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965) and State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
MethodThe Role of Stigma in Understanding Ethnicity Differences in Authoritarianism
Henry, P. J. (2011) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00816.x · Cited by 51
“…without exception the narratives involved incidents of social worth, such as being chosen as a leader of a group, winning some public award, etc. self-esteem scale (Cronbach's alpha = .94; Rosenberg, 1965), and a 20-item state self-esteem scale (Cronbach's alpha = .92; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundMartinot, D., Redersdorff, S., Guimond, S., & Dif, S. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/014616702237585 · Cited by 47
“State self-esteem was measured using a French version of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRebound Sex: Sexual Motives and Behaviors Following a Relationship Breakup
Barber, L. L., & Cooper, M. L. (2013) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-013-0200-3 · Cited by 45
“Social and appearance-related self-esteem were measured in the weekly reports by Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state selfesteem measure.”
MethodSometimes a celebrity holding a negative public image is the best product endorser
Sääksjärvi, M., Hellén, K., & Balabanis, G. I. (2016) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-06-2014-0346 · Cited by 59
EASEing Students Into College: The Impact of Multidimensional Support for Underprepared Students
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When I think of you, I feel more confident about me: The relational self and self-confidence
Gabriel, S., Renaud, J. M., & Tippin, B. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.07.004 · Cited by 46
College students’ perceptions of persons with intellectual disability at three different ages
Ahlborn, L. J., Panek, P. E., & Jungers, M. K. (2006) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2006.11.001 · Cited by 46
Ross, M., & Wade, T. D. (2003) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.531 · Cited by 46
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Anti-obesity public health messages and risk factors for disordered eating: a systematic review
Bristow, C., Meurer, C. E., Simmonds, J. G., & Snell, T. (2020) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daaa018 · Cited by 45
Antecedents of eating disorders and muscle dysmorphia in a non-clinical sample
Lamanna, J. D., Grieve, F. G., Derryberry, W. P., Hakman, M., & McClure, A. K. (2010) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/bf03325277 · Cited by 45
Self-determination and the consequences of social comparison
Neighbors, C., & Knee, C. R. (2003) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00047-3 · Cited by 46
“Performance state self-esteem We used the performance state self-esteem subscale of the Heatherton and Polivy (1991) state self-esteem scale tomeasure how participants felt about their performance and abilities.”
MethodWhat's mine is yours: The crossover of day-specific self-esteem
Neff, A., Sonnentag, S., Niessen, C., & Unger, D. (2012) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2012.10.002 · Cited by 50
Effects of Suppressing Negative Self–Referent Thoughts on Mood and Self–Esteem
Borton, J. L. S., Markowitz, L. J., & Dieterich, J. (2005) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.24.2.172.62269 · Cited by 52
“Next, participants completed Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) State Self–Esteem Scale (SSES).”
BackgroundBinge frequency predicts outcome in guided self-care treatment of bulimia nervosa
Thiels, C., Schmidt, U. H., Troop, N. A., Treasure, J. L., & Garthe, R. (2000) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/1099-0968(200008)8:4 · Cited by 11
Marmarosh, C. L., & Corazzini, J. G. (1997) · Group Dynamics Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/1089-2699.1.1.65 · Cited by 45
Self-compassion and attention: self-compassion facilitates disengagement from negative stimuli
Yip, V. T., & Tong, E. M. W. (2020) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1778060 · Cited by 60
“They also completed the 20- item State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) (α = .78) for manipulation check purposes, a 5-point scale from 1(not at all) to 5(extremely).”
MethodExistential Distress in Cancer Patients
Chen, W., Chen, Y., & Xiao, H. (2021) · Cancer Nursing · doi:10.1097/ncc.0000000000000925 · Cited by 44
Waller, K. L., & MacDonald, T. K. (2010) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00650.x · Cited by 47
Armitage, C. J. (2011) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02442.x · Cited by 50
Khodarahimi, S. (2012) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-012-9192-8 · Cited by 51
Knobloch‐Westerwick, S., & Hoplamazian, G. J. (2011) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650211425040 · Cited by 44
“Participants answered 56 questions (from the Jackson, 1967 Personality Research Form and the state self-esteem measure by Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), which took on average 121 seconds (SD = 20).”
BackgroundDitlmann, R., & Samii, C. (2016) · Peace and Conflict Journal of Peace Psychology · doi:10.1037/pac0000217 · Cited by 44
Bozkurt, S., & Gligor, D. M. (2019) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.02.071 · Cited by 47
Reflecting on one's best possible self as a leader: Implications for professional employees at work
Jennings, R. E., Lanaj, K., Koopman, J., & McNamara, G. M. (2021) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12447 · Cited by 48
Humility facilitates higher self-control
Tong, E. M. W., Tan, K. W. T., Chor, A. A. B., Koh, E. P. S., Lee, J. S. Y., & Tan, R. W. Y. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.09.008 · Cited by 43
Brown, C. S., Bigler, R. S., & Chu, H. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.04.010 · Cited by 48
Young, A. F., Gabriel, S., & Hollar, J. L. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.08.003 · Cited by 43
“Following, participants indicated their current mood on the Positive and Negative Affective Schedule (αpos=.91; αneg=.87; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and current self-esteem on the State Self-Esteem Scale (α=.93; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundResponding to the 98%: face-enhancing strategies for dealing with rejected customer ideas
Fombelle, P. W., Bone, S. A., & Lemon, K. N. (2016) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-015-0469-y · Cited by 43
“To test alternative constructs, we included self-esteem (five-item scale; Heatherton and Polivy 1991) and both internal (two-item) and external (two-item) attribution (Fincham and Bradbury 1992).”
MethodThe Chauvet 2014 Meeting Report
Jowsey‐Gregoire, S. G., Kumnig, M., Morélon, E., Moreno, E., Petruzzo, P., & Seulin, C. (2015) · Transplantation · doi:10.1097/tp.0000000000001013 · Cited by 44
Stability and Change in Domain–Specific Self–Esteem and Global Self–Esteem
Rentzsch, K., & Schröder–Abé, M. (2018) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2167 · Cited by 54
“For example, seminal work claimed that global self-esteem is a stable construct, whereas domain-specific self-esteem is rather unstable and situation specific (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Shavelson et al., 1976).”
BackgroundVertical individualism and injustice: The self‐restorative function of revenge
Zdaniuk, A., & Bobocel, D. R. (2012) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.1874 · Cited by 46
“Consequently, we measured changes in participants’ performance state self-esteem (PSSE), defined as “the extent to which people feel their performance is worthy” (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991, p. 907).”
MethodSelf-Esteem Maintenance Processes: Why Low Self-Esteem may be Resistant to Change
Josephs, R. A., Bosson, J. K., & Jacobs, C. G. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203029007010 · Cited by 43
“Second, after receiving the experimenter’s feedback (but before rating their own improvement), participants responded to 16 questions from Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) State Self-Esteem Scale (SSE).”
Managerial ability -- a review of its basis and potential improvement using psychological concepts
Nuthall, P. (2001) · Agricultural Economics · doi:10.1111/j.1574-0862.2001.tb00028.x · Cited by 100
“One of the early studies was of US midwestern farmers (Johnson et al., 1961). The main objective was to examine the role of information in decision making, to examine the components of management (hypothesised as observing, analysing, deciding, action and acceptance), and to learn what analytical procedures and expect…”
BackgroundInfluentialContingent Self-Esteem and Anticipated Reactions to Interpersonal Rejection and Achievement Failure
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Avi Besser, A., & King, K. (2011) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2011.30.10.1069 · Cited by 46
Bowden, J. (2021) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2021.1901666 · Cited by 43
“To generate feelings of self-esteem, students must be engaged with their university experience (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundJarry, J. L., & Kossert, A. L. (2007) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.12.003 · Cited by 45
The Effects of Meritocracy Beliefs on Women's Well-Being After First-Time Gender Discrimination
Foster, M. D., & Tsarfati, E. M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205278709 · Cited by 42
A prediction of initial appointment attendance and initial outcome expectations
Swift, J. K., Whipple, J. L., & Sandberg, P. (2012) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0029441 · Cited by 39
The effects of consumption on self-esteem
Consiglio, I., & van Osselaer, S. M. J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101341 · Cited by 54
Zeigler-Hill, V. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.09.005 · Cited by 26
“The remaining measures of self-esteem (i.e., Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, State Self-Esteem Scale, and Self-Competence Scale) were located in the Gregarious-Extraverted (NO) octant which is adjacent to the Assured-Dominant (PA) octant.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991-06
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 895-910
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1984877678
- Cited by
- 2,007
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 101 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 85 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 82
- FWCI
- 9.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- state self-esteem, self-esteem measurement, scale development, performance self-esteem, social self-esteem, appearance self-esteem, manipulation checks, self-concept stability
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