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Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.
Abstract
This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem. There has been a resurgence of interest in examining whether aspects of the self-concept are stable or malleable (Markus & Kunda, 1986). On the one hand, there is considerable evidence that the self-concept is persistent and stable and that people will actively seek information that confirms their self-concept and reject information that threatens their general view of self
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.85 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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“For example, scale validation research demonstrated that failing an exam negatively impacted performance self-esteem but not appearance self-esteem (Heatherton and Polivy 1991).”
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“It was measured using 4 of the 20 items of the cognitive esteem subscale of the State Self-Esteem Scale [76].”
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“In order to establish that our chosen measure of anxiety – state self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) – was comparable to other measures of anxiety used in the literature, we conducted an empirical study.”
MethodResultThe stress buffering effects of self-esteem
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“Two studies (31,65) have reported that women with SSc have diminished appearance self-esteem as measured with the appearance subscale of the State Self-Esteem Scale (66).”
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“Specifically, we used the performance factor of Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) self-esteem measure.”
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“We used the Current Thought Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) to measure the state self-esteem of participants.”
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“scales that have been used in previous studies to quantify changes in QOL and self-esteem.(5,6) Questionnaires were initially administered before treatment on the date of entry into the health outcomes survey to establish baseline values.”
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Self-esteem and its relationship to sexual offending
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Inducing Negative Affect Increases the Reward Value of Appetizing Foods in Dieters
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“Twenty-nine participants performed the neutral VMIP (Velten, 1968), followed by the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) and a 24-item mood scale (Heatherton & Vohs, 2000).”
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“State self-esteem was measured using a modified version of the Current Thoughts Scale ( Heatherton and Polivy 1991 ).”
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“Performance self-esteem. Participants filled out the 7item performance subscale of the State Self-Esteem scale ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ).”
MethodThe Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale: Development and Preliminary Validation
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“To measure physical appearance self-esteem, we used the 6 items of the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) that form the appearance subscale of the scale (e.g., “I am pleased with my appearance right now”).”
van Lankveld, W. G. J. M., Vonk, M. C., Teunissen, H., & van den Hoogen, F. H. J. (2007) · Rheumatology · doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kem008 · Cited by 93
“ASE on the 6-item Appearance subscale of the State Self-Esteem Scale [ 15 ] based on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ‘not at all’ [1] to ‘extremely’ [5].”
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“Participants reported their selfesteem in the areas of performance (e.g., ‘‘I feel confident in my abilities) and social relationships (e.g., ‘‘I am worried about what other people think of me’’; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundMojaverian, T., & Kim, H. S. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212465319 · Cited by 93
“…participants filled out questionnaires regarding their state self-esteem (20 items, i.e., I feel good about myself, I feel that others respect and admire me; α = .89; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), the stressfulness of the task (5 items; α = .84), and evaluation of their partner (4 items; α = .80).”
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Dunn, L., & Dahl, D. W. (2012) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.11.0169 · Cited by 89
“After the affirmation manipulation, we took a measure of state self-esteem (Heatherton and Polivy 1991) to serve as a manipulation check for the affirmation manipulation.”
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Hoffner, C. A., Plotkin, R. S., Buchanan, M., Anderson, J. D., Kamigaki, S. K., Hubbs, L. A., Kowalczyk, L., SILBERG, K. J., & Pastorek, A. (2001) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2001.tb02881.x · Cited by 91
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Brannon, T. N., Markus, H. R., & Taylor, V. J. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038992 · Cited by 115
“The threat measure was adapted from Cohen and Garcia (2005, Experiment 5), it included five state self-esteem items (e.g., “I am confident in my abilities”; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) and one global self-esteem item (e.g., “I feel good about myself”).”
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“A parallel 2 (image) 3 (presence) MANOVA was conducted using the SSES as a dependent variable.”
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“This possibility is a particularly important one to consider, given that trait and state self-esteem are also correlated ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ).”
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Effects of male rape on psychological functioning
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“Heatherton and Polivy (1991) did not report sex differences in their five studies validating the SSES, so we were surprised to find them here.”
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“It has been found to be a reliable measure of state self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
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Investigating the impact of pro-anorexia websites: a pilot study
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“State selfesteem was assessed using the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
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“Posttest self-esteem was assessed with the performance (seven items) and social (seven items) subscales from the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ).”
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System justification: How do we know it’s motivated?
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Self‐Awareness, Task Failure, and Disinhibition: How Attentional Focus Affects Eating
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Self-citationRégner, I., Loose, F., & Dumas, F. (2009) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/bf03173016 · Cited by 82
“As a measure of pereeived competenee, we used the Performanee State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991)', It consisted of seven items (e,g,, "1 feel as smart as others") arid ratings were made on a 5-point scale {\=strong¡y disagree, 5=strong¡y agree).”
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Coping with a threatened group identity: Psychosocial and neuroendocrine responses
Matheson, K., & Cole, B. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.04.002 · Cited by 81
“Personal self-esteem Participants responded to Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) 16-item state self-esteem measure in terms of how descriptive each item was at the moment on a 1 (strongly untrue of me) to 7 (strongly true of me) rating scale.”
MethodThe impact of blatant stereotype activation and group sex-composition on female leaders
Hoyt, C. L., Johnson, S. K., Murphy, S. E., & Skinnell, K. H. (2010) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.07.003 · Cited by 90
“State self-esteem was assessed with a measure adapted from Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem measure.”
MethodSandstrom, G. M., & Boothby, E. J. (2020) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2020.1816568 · Cited by 81
“…to strangers: interaction anxiety (4-point scale; measured in 5 studies; Leary, 1983), social self-esteem (5-point scale; measured in 4 studies; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), shyness (5-point scale; measured in 2 studies; McCroskey & Richmond, 1982), and social curiosity (4-point scale; measured…”
Unpacking the psychological weight of weight stigma: A rejection-expectation pathway
Blodorn, A., Major, B., Hunger, J., & Miller, C. T. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.12.003 · Cited by 74
“Participants completed the social self-esteem (7 items; e.g., “I feel inferior to others”) and appearance self-esteem (6 items; e.g., “I feel unattractive”) subscales of the state self-esteem scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundJealousy and the Characteristics of One's Rival: A Self-Evaluation Maintenance Perspective
DeSteno, D. A., & Salovey, P. (1996) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167296229006 · Cited by 81
Mutual Self-Enhancement in Japan and the United States
Dalsky, D. J., Gohm, C. L., Noguchi, K., & Shiomura, K. (2008) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022107313863 · Cited by 80
“This is a 20-item measure of state selfesteem that asks respondents to consider the present moment when responding to statements involving self-esteem on a scale of 1 (not at all) to 9 (extremely) (overall α = .92; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundCombating Weight-Based Cyberbullying on Facebook with the Dissenter Effect
Anderson, J., Bresnahan, M., & Musatics, C. (2014) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0370 · Cited by 82
Grandiose delusions: A review and theoretical integration of cognitive and affective perspectives
Knowles, R. J., McCarthy‐Jones, S., & Rowse, G. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.02.009 · Cited by 87
Effects of exposure to objectified male and female media images on men's psychological well-being.
Johnson, P. J., McCreary, D. R., & Mills, J. S. (2007) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.8.2.95 · Cited by 80
Kraut, R. E., Kiesler, S. B., Boneva, B. S., Cummings, J. N., Helgeson, V. S., & Crawford, A. M. (2003) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/7252.003.0020 · Cited by 81
Demoulin, S., Nguyen, N., Chevallereau, T., Fontesse, S., Bastart, J., Stinglhamber, F., & Maurage, P. (2020) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12380 · Cited by 72
“Twenty items from Heatherton and Polivy (1991) were used to measure performance (e.g., ‘I feel confident in my abilities’; seven items; a = .68), sociability (e.g., ‘I feel concerned about the impression I am making’; seven items; a = .89), and appearance (e.g., ‘I feel satisfied with the way my…”
MethodCihangir, S., Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2014) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014539168 · Cited by 78
“We measured performance state self-esteem (PSSE) with items from the Heatherton and Polivy (1991) State Performance SelfEsteem subscale (α = .”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialGamaiunova, L., Brandt, P.-Y., Bondolfi, G., & Kliegel, M. (2019) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.02.026 · Cited by 82
Suspicion of motives predicts minorities' responses to positive feedback in interracial interactions
Major, B., Kunstman, J. W., Malta, B. D., Sawyer, P. J., Townsend, S. S. M., & Mendes, W. B. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.007 · Cited by 75
“State self-esteem was assessed with the 7-item social self-esteem subscale of Heatherton and Polivy's (1991) State Self-Esteem Scale (e.”
MethodA new substitute for leadership? Followers' state core self-evaluations
Nübold, A., Muck, P. M., & Maier, G. W. (2012) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.07.002 · Cited by 84
Bardone‐Cone, A. M., Vohs, K. D., Abramson, L. Y., Heatherton, T. F., & Joiner, T. E. (2000) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(00)80015-5 · Cited by 76
Self-citationConfronting Sexism: The Role of Relationship Orientation and Gender
Gervais, S. J., Hillard, A. L., & Vescio, T. K. (2010) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9838-7 · Cited by 75
“Participants then completed the 14-item State Selfesteem Scale (e.g., “I feel as smart as others;” Heatherton and Polivy 1991 ) on 5-point scales (1 = not at all, 5= extremely).”
MethodLoneliness and Sexual Risk Behavior in Gay Men
Martin, J. I., & Knox, J. (1997) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1997.81.3.815 · Cited by 75
Schadenfreude and the spread of political misfortune
Crysel, L. C., & Webster, G. D. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201754 · Cited by 81
Hernandez, I. A., Silverman, D. M., & Destin, M. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104080 · Cited by 109
Moore, D. A., & Klein, W. M. P. (2008) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.02.005 · Cited by 73
“Finally, to measure state self-esteem, we used 10 performance and social items from Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem scale, which”
BackgroundMethodTomás, J. M., Oliver, A., Galiana, L., Sancho, P., & Lila, M. (2013) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2013.769394 · Cited by 73
“Model 2 tests for method effects on the SSES domain-specific self-esteem scale, and it tries to predict this method factor with age, gender, and STAI trait.”
MethodInfluentialBurnette, J. L., Pollack, J. M., & Hoyt, C. L. (2010) · Journal of Leadership Studies · doi:10.1002/jls.20138 · Cited by 72
Metadata
- Authors
- Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991-06
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 895-910
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1984877678
- Cited by
- 2,007
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 101 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 85 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 82
- FWCI
- 9.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- state self-esteem, self-esteem measurement, scale development, performance self-esteem, social self-esteem, appearance self-esteem, manipulation checks, self-concept stability
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