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Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.
Abstract
This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem. There has been a resurgence of interest in examining whether aspects of the self-concept are stable or malleable (Markus & Kunda, 1986). On the one hand, there is considerable evidence that the self-concept is persistent and stable and that people will actively seek information that confirms their self-concept and reject information that threatens their general view of self
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.85 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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“Indeed, although state self-esteem is strongly correlated with trait self-esteem, it does fluctuate around the chronic level (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Kernis, 1993).”
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“Notably, self-esteem can be conceptualized as both a mostly stable trait that develops over time and a fluid state that is responsive to daily events and contexts (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
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Social exclusion impairs self-regulation
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“Next, participants completed the Brief Mood Introspection Scale (BMIS; Mayer & Gaschke, 1988) and the State Self-Esteem Scale ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ).”
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“Immediately following the feedback, the participant completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule—Now mood scale (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and the State Self-Esteem Scale ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ).”
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“This variable was calculated using the standard deviation of nine separate administrations of a state self-esteem measure ( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ), a 5 .86–.89.”
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“…moved to a different room, they were asked to use a 7-point Likert scale to report how tempted they felt, how much they thought about the candies, and how much they wondered about the candies, as well as to complete a 24-item mood scale and the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
Self-citationLicensing Effect in Consumer Choice
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“These were mainly from the Heatherton and Polivy (1991) state measure, but a few studies used the Rosenberg (1965) trait measure.”
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“also noted their state self-esteem based on Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) measures of appearance, social, and performance state self-esteem.”
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“Notably, self-esteem can change according to context and time and can be considered to be a state (131) that is amenable to contextual cell-phone use (127).”
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“After taking the math test, performance state self-esteem was measured using the performance subscale from the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
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Morality and competence in person- and self-perception
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“( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ); and in one sample the preference of own initials over other letters of the alphabet was used as an implicit measure of self-esteem (Koole & Pelham, 2003).”
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“…r .42, p .001), (c) self-efficacy in math (two items, e.g., “I feel confident that I understand things in math”; 1 strongly disagree, 7 strongly agree; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; r .31, p .009), (d) interest in math (five items, e.g., “How interested would you be in learning more about…”
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Stability of self-esteem across the life span.
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“Reflecting these various perspectives, Heatherton and Polivy (1991) developed a state self-esteem scale for use in research on short-term changes in self-esteem, and Rosenberg (1965) created a scale that assesses the degree to which a person’s self-esteem remains stable over time.”
BackgroundAcute Threat to the Social Self: Shame, Social Self-esteem, and Cortisol Activity
Gruenewald, T. L., Kemeny, M. E., Aziz, N., & Fahey, J. L. (2004) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000143639.61693.ef · Cited by 515
“The social and performance subscales of the State Self-Esteem Scale (39) were also administered before and after the performance tasks.”
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“In addition, we administered the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ) to test for mediation by state self-esteem.”
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“Subjective impressions of changes in self-esteem have prompted the development of state self-esteem scales (e.g., Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), which supposedly register temporary fluctuations in response to recent events and outcomes.”
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“The scales used included McFarland and Ross’s (1982) self-esteem scale, and Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem scale.”
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Wang, C., Bannuru, R., Ramel, J., Kupelnick, B., Scott, T., & Schmid, C. H. (2010) · BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1186/1472-6882-10-23 · Cited by 478
“Among the measurements employed were: Rosenberg's 10-item Global Self-Esteem Scale [79], the Chinese version of the State Self-Esteem Scale [80], Sonstroem Physical Examination Scale [81] and the Body Cathexis Score [82].”
MethodRole of hope in academic and sport achievement.
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Dynamics of multiple-goal pursuit.
Louro, M. J., Pieters, R., & Zeelenberg, M. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.174 · Cited by 465
Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women's performance.
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., & Bollier, T. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.764 · Cited by 470
“Similarly, our results nicely fit Jackman’s (1994) velvet glove theory as well as Benokraitis’s (1997) propositions about the effectiveness of “sweet” discrimination in maintaining gender status inequities.”
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“Appearance satisfaction was measured with items drawn from the Appearance subscale of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
MethodProtecting the self through consumption: Status goods as affirmational commodities
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“Self-threat was manipulated through performance feedback that was either threatening or non-threatening to one’s self-worth (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; McQueen & Klein, 2006).”
MethodSocial Identity Theory's Self-Esteem Hypothesis: A Review and Some Suggestions for Clarification
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Group Identification Moderates Emotional Responses to Perceived Prejudice
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“Participants completed a brief fiveitem measure of state self-esteem adapted from the social and performance subscales of Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) scale (“I feel confident about my abilities”; “I am worried about what other people think of me”; “I feel frustrated or rattled by my performance”; “I feel that I hav…”
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The stigma of overweight: Affective consequences of attributional ambiguity.
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I’ll Have What She’s Having: Effects of Social Influence and Body Type on the Food Choices of Others
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The four pillars of tertiary student engagement and success: a holistic measurement approach
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“It includes perceptions of; pride; control; success; efficacy; social respect and acceptance; teacher approval; and confidence in their ability to meet clear goals during tertiary study and beyond degree completion (Heatherton and Polivy 1991).”
BackgroundAcceptance of cosmetic surgery: Scale development and validation
Henderson-King, D. H., & Henderson-King, E. I. (2005) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.003 · Cited by 443
Can the Media Affect Us? Social Comparison, Self-Discrepancy, and the Thin Ideal
Bessenoff, G. R. (2006) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00292.x · Cited by 412
“The 20-item scale by Heatherton and Polivy (1991) was used to assess three subareas of self-esteem: seven questions related to appearance selfesteem (e.g., “I am pleased with my appearance”), seven questions related to social self-esteem (e.g., “I worry about what other people think of me”), and…”
MethodBrown, J. D., & Dutton, K. A. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.68.4.712 · Cited by 442
The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation.
Koole, S. L., Smeets, K., van Knippenberg, A., & Dijksterhuis, A. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.111 · Cited by 403
Defensiveness Versus Remediation: Self-Theories and Modes of Self-Esteem Maintenance
Nussbaum, A. D., & Dweck, C. S. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207312960 · Cited by 425
“In keeping with Heckhausen and Schulz’s (1995) contention that people generally resort to indirect psychological adjustment (secondary control) only when they perceive a direct option (primary control) to be impractical, we propose that people tend to respond defensively to negative feedback primarily when they percei…”
BackgroundMethodExcuse Me—What Did You Just Say?!: Women's Public and Private Responses to Sexist Remarks
Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1370 · Cited by 387
Assessing Three Sources of Misresponse to Reversed Likert Items
Swain, S. D., Weathers, D., & Niedrich, R. W. (2008) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.1.116 · Cited by 386
Leary, M. R., Haupt, A. L., Strausser, K. S., & Chokel, J. T. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1290 · Cited by 385
Cable, D. M., Gino, F., & Staats, B. R. (2013) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0001839213477098 · Cited by 437
“We measured self-esteem with six items from Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem scale (e.”
MethodSocial identities promote well‐being because they satisfy global psychological needs
Greenaway, K. H., Cruwys, T., Haslam, S. A., & Jetten, J. (2015) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2169 · Cited by 439
When forgiving enhances psychological well-being: The role of interpersonal commitment.
Karremans, J. C., Lange, P. A. M. V., Ouwerkerk, J. W., & Kluwer, E. S. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1011 · Cited by 382
“Finally, self-esteem was assessed with the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991); this instrument also exhibited high internal consistency (␣ ϭ .92).”
MethodThine own self: True self-concept accessibility and meaning in life
Schlegel, R. J., Hicks, J. A., Arndt, J., & King, L. A. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014060 · Cited by 367
“Participants also completed the 20-item State Self-Esteem Scale, which has been argued to be sensitive to transient changes in self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
On judging and being judged accurately in zero-acquaintance situations.
Ambady, N., Hallahan, M., & Rosenthal, R. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.518 · Cited by 367
What is good mental health? A scoping review
Fusar-Poli, P., Salazar de Pablo, G., De Micheli, A., Nieman, D. H., Correll, C. U., Kessing, L. V., Pfennig, A., Bechdolf, A., Borgwardt, S., Arango, C., et al. (2020) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.12.105 · Cited by 356
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Regulatory Mode: Locomotion and Assessment as Distinct Orientations
Higgins, E. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Pierro, A. (2003) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(03)01005-0 · Cited by 360
Comparing to perfection: How cultural norms for appearance affect social comparisons and self-image
Strahan, E. J., Wilson, A. E., Cressman, K. E., & Buote, V. M. (2006) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.07.004 · Cited by 352
“Self-esteem We measured self-esteem (SE) with an adapted (slightly shortened) version of Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem scale.”
MethodMajor, B., Quinton, W. J., & Schmader, T. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(02)00547-4 · Cited by 347
Sherlock, M., & Wagstaff, D. L. (2019) · Psychology of Popular Media Culture · doi:10.1037/ppm0000182 · Cited by 324
Inzlicht, M., & Kang, S. K. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018951 · Cited by 380
“…on the academic test, participants completed the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and measures of the performance component of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) to assess current mood and state self-esteem, respectively.”
MethodBrockner, J. (2002) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2002.5922363 · Cited by 333
“People's temporary evaluation of themselves, known as state self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), was the dependent variable.”
The Effects of Perspective-Taking on Prejudice: The Moderating Role of Self-Evaluation
Galinsky, A. D., & Ku, G. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203262802 · Cited by 332
INTERPERSONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE SELF-ESTEEM MOTIVE THE SELF-ESTEEM SYSTEM AS A SOCIOMETER
Leary, M. R., & Downs, D. L. (1995) · Cited by 329
A Meta-Analytic Review of Stand-Alone Interventions to Improve Body Image
Alleva, J. M., Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., Martijn, C., & Miles, E. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139177 · Cited by 388
“39 = Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS, [105]); 40 = Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents [106]: Physical Appearance Subscale; 41 = State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES, [107]): Appearance Subscale;”
BackgroundDykman, B. M. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.139 · Cited by 323
Major, B., Kaiser, C. R., O’Brien, L. T., & McCoy, S. K. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1068 · Cited by 321
“Self-esteem was assessed with the 10item Rosenberg Global Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1979) as well as the 7-item Social Self-Esteem subscale and the 7-item Performance Self-Esteem subscale of Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) State Self-Esteem Scale.”
MethodInclusion: Conceptualization and measurement
Jansen, W. S., Otten, S., van der Zee, K. I., & Jans, L. (2014) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2011 · Cited by 373
“Wemeasured state self-esteem with seven items from the original 20-item scale of Heatherton and Polivy (1991).”
BackgroundMethod"I Am Us": Negative Stereotypes as Collective Threats.
Cohen, G. L., & Garcia, J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.566 · Cited by 313
“We used the complete Performance and Social State Self- Esteem subscales rather than only the five items selected from those scales in Experiment 1 (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
MethodFrom the top down: Self-esteem and self-evaluation
Brown, J. D., Dutton, K. A., & Cook, K. E. (2001) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930126063 · Cited by 343
“Some researchers believe this problem can be overcome by experimentally manipulating self-esteem (e.g., Arndt & Greenberg, 1999; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Leary et al., 1995).”
BackgroundA systematic review and meta-analysis of ‘Systems for Social Processes' in eating disorders
Caglar-Nazali, H. P., Corfield, F., Cardi, V., Ambwani, S., Leppanen, J., Olabintan, O., Deriziotis, S., Hadjimichalis, A., Scognamiglio, P., Eshkevari, E., et al. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.002 · Cited by 294
Miller, W. R., Meyers, R. J., & Tonigan, J. S. (1999) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.67.5.688 · Cited by 304
Miller, W. R., Meyers, R. J., & Tonigan, J. S. (1999) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.67.5.688 · Cited by 302
Self-Esteem and Emotion: Some Thoughts about Feelings
Brown, J. D., & Marshall, M. A. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201275006 · Cited by 304
“As first noted by William James (1890), some emotions always describe how people feel about themselves.”
BackgroundGlobal self-esteem in relation to structural models of personality and affectivity.
Watson, D., Suls, J., & Haig, J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.83.1.185 · Cited by 221
Internalized Societal Attitudes Moderate the Impact of Weight Stigma on Avoidance of Exercise
Vartanian, L. R., & Novak, S. A. (2011) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2010.234 · Cited by 381
“Participants also completed the Current Thoughts Scale (31), a 20-item measure that assesses state self-esteem across three domains (social, performance, and appearance).”
Preferences of High- and Low-hope People for Self-referential Input
Snyder, C. R. R., LaPointe, A. B., Crowson, J. J., & Early, S. (1998) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999398379448 · Cited by 301
Social surrogacy: How favored television programs provide the experience of belonging
Derrick, J. L., Gabriel, S., & Hugenberg, K. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.003 · Cited by 314
“Second, participants completed the Heatherton and Polivy (1991) measure of state self-esteem (a = .88).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991-06
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 895-910
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1984877678
- Cited by
- 2,007
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 101 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 85 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 82
- FWCI
- 9.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- state self-esteem, self-esteem measurement, scale development, performance self-esteem, social self-esteem, appearance self-esteem, manipulation checks, self-concept stability
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