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Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.
Abstract
This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem. There has been a resurgence of interest in examining whether aspects of the self-concept are stable or malleable (Markus & Kunda, 1986). On the one hand, there is considerable evidence that the self-concept is persistent and stable and that people will actively seek information that confirms their self-concept and reject information that threatens their general view of self
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“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.85 for the overall scale.”
From Schema-Informed Digital Mental Health Intervention for Maladaptive Cognitive-Emotional Patterns: Randomized Controlled Trial (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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“For example, the Heatherton and Polivy (1991) scale consists of 20 items and the Rosenberg (1965) scale consists of 10 items. Some measures of self-esteem use a single item. For example, the Single Item Self-esteem Scale (SISE) (Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001) asks participants to rate their own self-esteem usin…”
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“Additional preliminary research also revealed that men high on body shame were low on self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), r(210) = −.62, p < .001, and masculinity, using the Personality Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975), r(40) = −.53, p < .001.”
MethodAssessment and correlates of self-esteem following stroke using a pictorial measure
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Facebook and people's state self-esteem: The impact of the number of other users' Facebook friends
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“To assess participant's state self-esteem, participants filled out a well-established 20-item scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) (a ¼ .90).”
MethodLou, C., Tse, C. H., & Lwin, M. O. (2019) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2019.1668890 · Cited by 22
“Participants’ appearance-related self-esteem was measured by six items extracted from prior research (Cronbach’s a ¼ .87) (Heatherton and Polivy 1991) with statements such as “I feel satisfied with the way my body looks right now.””
MethodHogue, C. M. (2020) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101792 · Cited by 23
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The development of thePersonality Audit:a psychodynamic multiple feedback assessment instrument
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“Although researchers argue about whether to treat self-esteem as a relatively stable trait or as a temporary state, there appears to be a strong correlation between trait and state self-esteem, the implication being that most people tend to have a stable self-esteem baseline (Baumeister, 1998 ; Heatherton and Polivy,…”
BackgroundStopa, L. L., Brown, M. A., & Hirsch, C. R. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.021511 · Cited by 22
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“State self-esteem State self-esteem was measured at several points throughout the study using the State Self-Esteem scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), which assesses how individuals feel about themselves in the short term and is sensitive to fluctuations in self-esteem in the state versus…”
MethodPsychopathology in Police Custody
Blaauw, E., Kerkhof, A. J. F. M., & Vermunt, R. C. (1998) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0160-2527(97)00019-8 · Cited by 22
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Foster, M. D. (2008) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9568-2 · Cited by 22
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“A total of 384 participants (269 female) completed the name letter test and Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES).”
BackgroundAffective and Behavioral Traces of Goal Conflict With Physical Activity
Bailis, D. S., Thacher, T. M., Aird, N. C. A., & Lipschitz, L. J. (2011) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2011.568836 · Cited by 22
“Specifically, in comparison with control participants, goal-conflict participants reported significantly lower positive affect and self-evaluations of their abilities— including their intelligence and scholastic ability that were mentioned by name in the State Self-Esteem Scale.”
MethodInfluentialImplicit and explicit expectations of justice as a function of manager and subordinate race
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“The SSES includes 20 items on a scale from one to four where one equals ‘strongly disagree’ and four equals ‘strongly agree’.”
MethodInfluentialRelationship between self‐esteem and the occurrence of depression following a stroke
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“The questionnaire has been shown to be sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodSocial comparison and life satisfaction in social media: The role of mattering and state self-esteem
Sim, P. P. T., & Prihadi, K. D. (2020) · International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS) · doi:10.11591/ijphs.v9i3.20509 · Cited by 25
“The temporary fluctuation of self-esteem state is addressed as state self-esteem [48], and in a relatively recent study, correlation between SNS usage and state self-esteem has been reported [27], because of how state self-esteem is a momentary shift in a person‟s feelings about themselves [49], whereby the fluctuatio…”
The name effect in customization service: the role of psychological ownership and self-threat
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Koek, W. J. D., & Chen, V. H. H. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2349176 · Cited by 21
“This form of self-esteem is termed as state self-esteem , which suggests that individuals ’ evaluations of their self-worth may be subject to momentary changes (Brown and Marshall 2006; Heatherton and Polivy 1991; Heatherton and Wyland 2003).”
InfluentialDefining Discrimination in the Personal/Group Discrimination Discrepancy
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“... into the lab individually or in small groups and were told they were participating in a study about “perceptions of the social climate.” Participants were randomly assigned to read a vignette which described either a high-severity or low-severity action that was either high or low in frequency (see Table I). After…”
Methodvan Lieshout, S., Mevissen, F. E. F., van Breukelen, G., Jonker, M. A., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2016) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260516654932 · Cited by 21
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Procedural justice effects on self-esteem under certainty versus uncertainty emotions
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“These items were taken from prior justice research (De Cremer and Sedikides 2008; De Cremer and Tyler 2005) and from scales assessing relational and social dimensions of self-esteem (Leary et al. 2001; McFarland and Ross 1982; Heatherton and Polivy 1991; Routledge et al. 2007, Nostalgia proneness and nostalgia functio…”
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Development of State Self-esteem Scale
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“Impor-tantly, these items were not framed as measuring self-esteem and were introduced with the following text, adopted from Heatherton and Polivy (1991), to ostensibly merely measure current thoughts: The following statements are designed to measure what you are thinking at this moment.”
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“In addition, participants completed the Performance and Social State Self-Esteem Scales ( Heatherton and Polivy 1991 ) to assess the influence of acknowledging or not acknowledging discrimination on one’s self-esteem.”
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“…which focus on self-reports of feelings and judgments about the self in social domains (as distinct from others like competence or appearance; e.g., Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) rather than judgments about others’ evaluations or evaluation of self in relation to others (e.g., Mann, 1980).”
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“State self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) averaged at 3.51 (SD = .59) on a 5-point scale (Cronbach’s α =.84).”
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“State self-esteem State self-esteem was assessed by the 20 item State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton and Polivy, 1991).”
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“In so doing, we rely on two well-established constructs in social psychology, (1) self-esteem (i.e., one’s perceived sense of self-worth; Heatherton and Polivy 1991; Schunk 1991) and (2) self-efficacy (i.e., self-confidence in one’s abilities; Bandura and Cervone 1983; Locke and Latham 1990a, b).”
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“State self-esteem (e.g., “I feel confident about my abilities”; “I am worried about whether I am regarded as a success or failure”; 1 D Not at all to 7 D Very much; a D .70; Heatherton and Polivy 1991) was measured to check the effectiveness of the self-affirmation manipulations.”
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“Fourth, in order to better capture the effect of the election results on participants’ self-esteem after the election results were announced, we asked participants to respond to Heatherton and Polivy’s [36] 20-item state self-esteem scale (SSES) (α = .94).”
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“To be sure, self-esteem and narcissism can also be state-based constructs (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Li et al., 2016).”
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“Perceived social inclusion was measured using state self-esteem scale (SSES) [31].”
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Feedback information and consumer motivation
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“Four seven-point scales are used to measure appearance self-esteem ( Heatherton and Polivy, 1991”
MethodEFECTOS DE FORMATO DE RESPUESTA Y MÉTODO DE ESTIMACIÓN EN ANÁLISIS FACTORIAL CONFIRMATORIO
Tomás, J. M., & Oliver, A. (1998) · Psicothema · Cited by 19
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“Outcome measures were: State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), General Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995), Positive Affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and the Trail Making Test, Parts A and B, Alternate Forms (Wagner, Helmr…”
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Who is Beholding my Beauty? Thinness Ideals, Weight, and Women’s Responses to Appearance Evaluation
Darlow, S. D., & Lobel, M. (2010) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9845-8 · Cited by 19
“Appearance state self-esteem was assessed using the sixitem appearance subscale of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton and Polivy 1991 ).”
MethodBoersma, K., & Jarry, J. L. (2013) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.11.002 · Cited by 24
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Making Attributions to and Plans to Confront Gender Discrimination: The Role of Optimism
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Integrating Mentoring and Social Support Research within the Context of Stressful Medical Training
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Effects of anti-obesity messages on women's body image and eating behaviour
Shentow-Bewsh, R., Keating, L., & Mills, J. S. (2015) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.11.012 · Cited by 19
“To measure state self-esteem, we used the Current Thoughts Scale AC C EP TE D M AN U SC R IP T (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
BackgroundMethodHoward, M. C. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.061 · Cited by 19
“Constructs may be differentiated based on their temporal stability, such as trait and state self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Howard, 2017; Leary & Baumeister, 2000).”
BackgroundThe Sound of Success: Investigating Cognitive and Behavioral Effects of Motivational Music in Sports
Elvers, P., & Steffens, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02026 · Cited by 22
“…and post-test measures before the first phase and again before the second phase; these were the German version of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton and Polivy, 1991; Rudolph et al., in preparation) (α = 0.81) and the German Version of the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory…”
MethodInfluentialWhelan, J., & Hingston, S. T. (2018) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1029 · Cited by 17
Extraversion as a Moderator of the Efficacy of Self-Esteem Maintenance Strategies
Vaughan‐Johnston, T. I., MacGregor, K. E., Fabrigar, L. R., Evraire, L. E., & Wasylkiw, L. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220921713 · Cited by 19
“All participants next completed the SSES (a¼ .92), intermixed with 15 filler items to reduce suspicion, and then the BFI-44, before completing the suspicion items, and being thoroughly debriefed.”
MethodInfluentialThe role of psychological attribution in responses to weight stigma
Gerend, M. A., Sutin, A. R., Terracciano, A., & Maner, J. K. (2020) · Obesity Science & Practice · doi:10.1002/osp4.437 · Cited by 20
O'Driscoll, L. M., & Jarry, J. (2015) · Body image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.09.003 · Cited by 20
Smith, J. L., Hardy, T. K., & Arkin, R. M. (2008) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.10.004 · Cited by 19
LEGITIMACY, ATTITUDES AND INTENDED PATRONAGE: UNDERSTANDING CHALLENGES FACING BLACK ENTREPRENEURS
Ogbolu, M., Singh, R. P., & Wilbon, A. D. (2015) · Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1142/s1084946715500077 · Cited by 19
Obsessional beliefs and the implicit and explicit morality of intrusive thoughts
Teachman, B. A., & Clerkin, E. M. (2007) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930600985576 · Cited by 19
“The SSES (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ) measures temporary changes in self-esteem and was used to determine the degree to which participants’ self-evaluation was related to their views on intrusive thoughts.”
MethodSantor, D. A., & Walker, J. (1999) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466699164275 · Cited by 19
Cotter, V. T., & Gonzalez, E. W. (2009) · Holistic Nursing Practice · doi:10.1097/hnp.0b013e3181bf37ea · Cited by 19
Harter, S. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0309 · Cited by 32
Yamaoka, K., Uotsu, N., & Hoshino, E. (2022) · Neurobiology of Stress · doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2022.100479 · Cited by 18
Davies, M., Walker, J., Archer, J., & Pollard, P. (2010) · Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research · doi:10.5042/jacpr.2010.0534 · Cited by 23
Rank‐Christman, T., Morrin, M., & Ringler, C. (2017) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2016.12.002 · Cited by 18
The Development of the Reversal Theory State Measure
(2014) · Journal of Motivation Emotion and Personality Reversal Theory Studies · doi:10.12689/jmep.2014.202 · Cited by 18
“For example, Heatherton and Polivy (1991) developed the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES), which consists of 20 items measuring performance, social, and appearance selfesteem. Vealey (1986) developed the State Sport-Confidence Inventory to assess athlete’s confidence levels surrounding competitions.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe role of fragrance and self-esteem in perception of body odors and impressions of others
Croijmans, I., Beetsma, D. J. V., Aarts, H., Gortemaker, I. A., & Smeets, M. A. M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258773 · Cited by 20
“…in each group would provide enough sweat pads for ( 2 � 84 During the sender study, additional measures of state self-esteem were collected during both fragrance conditions: the State Self-Esteem Scale [44], a measure of signature size [45,46], and the Name Initial Preference Task [47–49].”
Favorite Possessions Protect Subjective Well-Being Under Income Inequality
Liu, J., Dalton, A. N., & Mukhopadhyay, A. (2022) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/00222437221141053 · Cited by 21
“After choosing a house, transport, and holiday, participants reported their SWB (e.g., “ I am satis fi ed with my life ” ; Diener et al. 1985; α = .93) and self-esteem (as a possible alternative explanation; Heatherton and Polivy 1991; α = .93).”
Dodeen, H. M. (2022) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/07342829221141934 · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1991-06
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 895-910
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W1984877678
- Cited by
- 2,007
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 58 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 101 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 85 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 82
- FWCI
- 9.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- state self-esteem, self-esteem measurement, scale development, performance self-esteem, social self-esteem, appearance self-esteem, manipulation checks, self-concept stability
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