The DOI matches its Crossref record; 8 of the 8 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Abstract
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
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“Studies suggest that women may be more likely to experience many risk factors that increase—or indicate the presence of—thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, including major depression (i.e., females are approximately twice as likely as males to suffer from Major Depression; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999).”
From The interpersonal theory of suicide. (2010) · cites this paper as Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999
In the citing paper
“Mastery, a person’s perception of the degree of control they have in their lives, was measured using Pearlin’s 7-item Mastery Scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84).”
From Longitudinal impacts of an online safety and health intervention for women experiencing intimate partner violence: randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [50]
Citations
Cites
An inventory for measuring depression
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Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.100.4.569 · Cited by 4,529
Self-citationNolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115 · Cited by 3,276
Self-citationKessler, R. (1993) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/0165-0327(93)90026-g · Cited by 2,207 · cited 2×
“This gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to emerge in early adolescence and then remains throughout the adult life span ( Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).”
BackgroundRuminative coping with depressed mood following loss.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.92 · Cited by 932 · cited 1×
“In turn, a number of laboratory and field studies have shown that people who engage in rumination when distressed show longer and more severe periods of depressive symptoms and are more likely to develop full depressive disorders than those who do not engage in rumination (Alloy & Abramson, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morr…”
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van der Waerden, J. E. B., Jansen, M. W. J., Hoefnagels, C., & Hosman, C. M. H. (2011) · The International Journal of Person Centered Medicine · doi:10.5750/ijpcm.v1i2.72 · Cited by 2
“In response to stressors women tend to make more use of ruminative coping strategies, defined as focusing on negative mood, negative aspects of self, or stressors [24].”
BackgroundAn Evaluation Model of Web-Based Distance Education for the Deaf Undergraduate
Li, Q., & Ming, M. (2009) · International Symposium on Intelligent Ubiquitous Computing and Education (IUCE) · doi:10.1109/iuce.2009.39 · Cited by 3
Potential Profile Analysis of College Students’ Depression and Its Relationship with Social Anxiety
凯, 丽. (2022) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2022.129396 · Cited by 2
High Hope and Low Rumination Are Antecedents of Grit
Raphiphatthana, B., & Jose, P. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-57389-8_10 · Cited by 2
Jafarzadeh, M., Cheshmi, M., Kolagari, M. R., Madadi, R., & Jafari, J. S. (2020) · Journal of Occupational Health and Epidemiology · doi:10.52547/johe.9.4.206 · Cited by 2
Moghadasin, M., & Khodaverdizadeh, B. (2019) · doi:10.4172/2161-0681.1000363 · Cited by 2
“This uncertainty forces them to analyze past events and other’s speech ruminatively [24].”
BackgroundBasu, J., Samanta, M., Basu, S., & Bhattacharya, M. (2018) · doi:10.1007/978-81-322-3782-2_21 · Cited by 2
Depression and Two Aspects of Private Self-consciousness: A Longitudinal Study
Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009) · The Japanese Journal of Personality · doi:10.2132/personality.17.261 · Cited by 2
Goldman, D. B. (2009) · doi:10.31274/etd-180810-365 · Cited by 1
“For instance, a number of researchers have reported differences between males and females in anger (Biaggio, 1989; Lerner, 1988), empathy (Eisenberg & Lennon, 1983; Gault & Sabini, 2000), and rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema & Jackson, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundBrinkmann, K. (2008) · reroDoc Digital Library · doi:10.13097/archive-ouverte/unige:524
“Especially women are prone to respond to stressful life experiences with rumination—a behavior that negatively reinforces the course of depression and that is considered to play a role in women’s higher prevalence rates for depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundThe Impact of Gender and Age on Cardiovascular Health in Germany
Kendel, F., & Sieverding, M. (2008) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-90355-2_5 · Cited by 4
General strain theory and social support: a study of African Americans
Lyons, J. A. (2002) · doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.1235 · Cited by 2
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Emotional Dysfunction following Psychosis
White, R. (2013) · Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Mindfulness for Psychosis · doi:10.1002/9781118499184.ch9 · Cited by 1
Madhan, K., Shagirbasha, S., & Iqbal, J. (2026) · Evidence-based HRM a Global Forum for Empirical Scholarship · doi:10.1108/ebhrm-08-2025-0387
Wong, S. M.-Y., Ip, M. H. C., Leung, D., Chan, W.-C., Wong, G., & Lum, T. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-52471-1 · Cited by 1
Mental Health and Relationship Consequences of Mental Load
Palmwood, E. N., & Liss, M. (2026) · Women & Therapy · doi:10.1080/02703149.2026.2640239 · Cited by 1
“The sense that one is responsible for maintaining the well-being of the family likely contributes to rumination about family well-being and rumination is a well-known mechanism for gender differences in depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
Watching the Russian–Ukrainian War: Comparison Between Europe and North America
Greenglass, E., Begic, P., Buchwald, P., Hintsa, T., Kaniasty, K., Karkkola, P., & Šolcová, I. (2025) · Behavioral Science · doi:10.3390/bs15101319 · Cited by 1
“This follows previous research showing that anxiety symptoms are generally more common in women than men (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
Risk and Protective Factors of the Media-Transmitted Traumatization During War in Ukraine
Juríčková, V., Adámek, P., Grygarová, D., Jonáš, J., Havlík, M., Horáček, J., & Kesner, L. (2025) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2025.2524606 · Cited by 1
“This is supported by findings that women are more likely to experience trauma than men (e.g., Tolin & Foa, 2006), and tend to exhibit greater physiological reactivity to stress (Olff, 2017) and higher rates of rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
DeLap, G. A. L., Chang, K. K., Santee, A. C., Sheinbaum, J. S., & Starr, L. R. (2025) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-025-10225-9 · Cited by 1
“The brooding subscale of the Ruminative Response Scale (RSS; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Treynor et al., 2003 ) includes five items assessing ruminative brooding.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1999
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1061-1072
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2083186275
- Cited by
- 1,543
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 28.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH51817, R01MH051817)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive symptoms, rumination, chronic strain, sense of mastery, mediation, reciprocal effects, coping
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, California, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interview, Psychological, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Negativism, Population Surveillance, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Sex Distribution
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