Cited by 1,543Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMental Health Research TopicsGender Roles and Identity Studies

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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.

Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan, Larson, Judith, Grayson, Carla·1999·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061

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Abstract

It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.

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“This gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to emerge in early adolescence and then remains throughout the adult life span ( Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).”
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Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss.
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“In turn, a number of laboratory and field studies have shown that people who engage in rumination when distressed show longer and more severe periods of depressive symptoms and are more likely to develop full depressive disorders than those who do not engage in rumination (Alloy & Abramson, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morr…”
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“Suppressed anger and subsequent “rumination” among women in dyads may be more intense, more frequent, and last longer than among men, thereby creating more severe psychophysiological consequences ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
Background
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“Compared to men, women generally report a greater tendency to rumi-nate on negative social interactions (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“One plausible explanation for the higher prevalence among females than males is the more negative life events experienced by females, where they face more financial constraints and lack control over their social and personal lives (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“23,25”
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“The five brooding items from the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Treynor et al., 2003) were administered at T1 and T2 to assess participants ’ tendencies to ruminate in response to depressed mood.”
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“In the context of depression, evidence for this view has been reported (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), and the same may be true of social anxiety, but research regarding social anxiety is lacking.”
Background
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Background
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Background
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Result
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“…the tendency among females to cope through investing in close friends may imply that female are more able to adapt to long-term stressors, which help protecting them from emotional distress and, therefore, display lower rates of depression in comparison to males (cf. Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
Background

Authors: Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1999
Volume: 77
Issue: 5
Pages: 1061-1072
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061
OpenAlex: W2083186275
Cited by: 1,543
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 28.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH51817, R01MH051817)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords: gender differences, depressive symptoms, rumination, chronic strain, sense of mastery, mediation, reciprocal effects, coping
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, California, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interview, Psychological, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Negativism, Population Surveillance, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Sex Distribution

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