Cited by 1,543Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMental Health Research TopicsGender Roles and Identity Studies

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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.

Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan, Larson, Judith, Grayson, Carla·1999·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061

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Abstract

It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.

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“This gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to emerge in early adolescence and then remains throughout the adult life span ( Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).”
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“In turn, a number of laboratory and field studies have shown that people who engage in rumination when distressed show longer and more severe periods of depressive symptoms and are more likely to develop full depressive disorders than those who do not engage in rumination (Alloy & Abramson, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morr…”
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“A possible explanation for the gender difference in the relation between neuroticism and loneliness could be the combination of higher neuroticism, the tendency to ruminate more (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999) and different needs for social affiliation in women compared tomen (Sonnenberg 2013).”
Background
Association Between Stress-Related Sleep Reactivity and Metacognitive Beliefs About Sleep in Insomnia Disorder: Preliminary Results
Palagini, L., Bruno, R. M., Toti, P., Caccavale, L., Gronchi, A., Mauri, M., Riemann, D. W., & Drake, C. L. (2015) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1080/15402002.2015.1065406 · Cited by 31
“…cognitive-emotional profiles that may relate to arousal in the context of insomnia: Increased negative emotional reactivity to stress in women may contribute to the gender differences in insomnia (Hantsoo et al., 2013; Kelly et al., 2008; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Thomsen et al., 2005).”
BackgroundResult
What Can Parents Do? Examining the Role of Parental Support on the Negative Relationship Among Racial Discrimination, Depression, and Drug Use Among African American Youth
Zapolski, T. C. B., Fisher, S. D., Hsu, W., & Barnes, J. (2016) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702616646371 · Cited by 36
The cyclical nature of depressed mood and future risk: Depression, rumination, and deficits in emotional clarity in adolescent girls
Rubenstein, L. M., Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Flynn, M. E., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2015) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.015 · Cited by 37
“Girls' tendencies to ruminate may be one factor that contributes to the marked sex difference in depression that emerges during adolescence (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
Influential
Gender Differences in the Incidence of Depression and Anxiety: Econometric Evidence from the USA
Borooah, V. K. (2009) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-009-9155-4 · Cited by 25
The emerging modern face of mood disorders: a didactic editorial with a detailed presentation of data and definitions
Fountoulakis, K. Ν. (2010) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1744-859x-9-14 · Cited by 26
“It is believed that men might react to emotional distress by trying not to think about it, while women are more likely to ruminate over their problems [46-48].”
Background
Self-discrepancies and negative affect: The moderating roles of private and public self-consciousness
Fromson, P. M. (2006) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.2006.34.4.333 · Cited by 28
Household- and employment-related risk factors for depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic
Wickens, C. M., Hamilton, H. A., Elton‐Marshall, T., Nigatu, Y. T., Jankowicz, D., & Wells, S. L. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.17269/s41997-020-00472-6 · Cited by 26
“For example, women often work outside the home but are also the persons primarily tasked with home, childcare, and senior care responsibilities, resulting in work overload (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999).”
Background
The Complex Interplay Between Emotion Regulation and Work Rumination on Exhaustion
Geisler, M., Buratti, S., & Allwood, C. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01978 · Cited by 39
Peripheral DNA methylation of HPA axis-related genes in humans: Cross-tissue convergence, two-year stability and behavioural and neural correlates
Sante, J. D., Ismaylova, E., Nemoda, Z., Gouin, J., Yu, W.-J., Caldwell, W., Vitaro, F., Szyf, M., Tremblay, R. E., & Booij, L. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.07.019 · Cited by 33
Emotion dysregulation in hypochondriasis and depression
Bailer, J., Witthöft, M., Erkic, M., & Mier, D. U. (2017) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2089 · Cited by 35
“The role of emotion dysregulation in the pathogenesis and maintenance of a variety of mental disorders is widely accepted (Aldao, Nolen Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010; Sheppes, Suri, & Gross, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
Social Forms of Religion and Religions in Contemporary Global Society
Beyer, P. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807961.004 · Cited by 32
The relative importance of rumination, experiential avoidance and mindfulness as predictors of depressive symptoms
Schut, D. M., & Boelen, P. A. (2016) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2016.11.008 · Cited by 33
“The Ruminative Response Scale (RRS; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999) is a 22-item self-report measure that assesses trait responses to depression symptoms; specifically, the tendency to ruminate in response to depressed mood.”
Method
Ruminative coping among patients with dysthymia before and after pharmacotherapy
Kelly, O., Matheson, K., Ravindran, A. V., Merali, Z., & Anisman, H. (2006) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20236 · Cited by 37
“Importantly, as observed in the case of major depression [Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Treynor et al., 2003], rumination was particularly high among patients with dysthymia.”
Background
Religion and Political Behavior
Manza, J., & Wright, N. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807961.021 · Cited by 69
Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) After Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Chong, R. J., Hao, Y., Tan, E. W. Q., Mok, G. J. L., Sia, C., Ho, J. S. Y., Chan, M. Y., & Ho, A. F. W. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14061786 · Cited by 35
“Possible hypotheses include physiological changes (e.g., menopause), social factors, differences in economic status and coping resources, opportunity structures for help-seeking behavior [44], and greater tendencies towards ruminative coping styles [45].”
An Exploratory Study of Gender Role Stress and Psychological Distress of Women in Kosovo
Kelmendi, K., & Jemini-Gashi, L. (2022) · Women's Health · doi:10.1177/17455057221097823 · Cited by 26
Associations Among Early Life Stress, Rumination, Symptoms of Psychopathology, and Sex in Youth in the Early Stages of Puberty: a Moderated Mediation Analysis
LeMoult, J., Humphreys, K. L., King, L. S., Colich, N. L., Price, A. N., Ordaz, S. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2018) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0430-x · Cited by 30
“Rumination— Rumination was assessed via the well-established 10-item Ruminative Response Scale (RRS; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999), which has demonstrated strong psychometric properties in adolescent samples (Burwell and Shirk 2007).”
Method
Fear of anxiety or fear of emotions? Anxiety sensitivity is indirectly related to anxiety and depressive symptoms via emotion regulation
Ouimet, A. J., Kane, L., & Tutino, J. S. (2016) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2016.1249132 · Cited by 25
A Comparison of the Response Styles Theory and the Hopelessness Theory of Depression in Preadolescents
Weir, K., & Jose, P. (2008) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431608314662 · Cited by 26
“…conceptualized as a potential mediator in this study because it has mediated the relationship between stress and depression in adult populations (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999); however, it is unknown if rumination acts as a mediator between stress and depression during late childhood and…”
Background
Relationships between obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression and functioning before and after exposure and response prevention therapy
Motivala, S. J., Arellano, M., Greco, R. L., Aitken, D., Hutcheson, N., Tadayonnejad, R., O’Neill, J., & Feusner, J. D. (2018) · International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1080/13651501.2017.1351991 · Cited by 25
“Higher scores indicate more rumination; scores can range from 22 to 88 and in a normative sample, mean scores on the RSS were 42 for women and 40 for men (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999).”
BackgroundResult
Androgen regulation of behavioral stress responses and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Zuloaga, D. G., Lafrican, J. J., & Zuloaga, K. L. (2024) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105528 · Cited by 30
Sex differences in Parkinson's Disease: An emerging health question
Ferreira, L. P. D. S., da Silva, R. A., da Costa, M. M. M., Roda, V. M. D. P., Vizcaino, S., Janisset, N. R. L. L., Vieira, R. R., Sanches, J. M., Soares, J. M., & Simões, M. D. J. (2022) · Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.clinsp.2022.100121 · Cited by 31
Anxiety and depression among Chinese children with and without reading disabilities.
Wang, L.-C. (2021) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1691 · Cited by 25
Development and cross-cultural testing of the International Depression Symptom Scale (IDSS): a measurement instrument designed to represent global presentations of depression
Haroz, E. E., Bass, J., Lee, C., Oo, S., Lin, K., Kohrt, B. A., Michalopolous, L., Nguyen, A. J., & Bolton, P. A. (2017) · Cambridge Prisms Global Mental Health · doi:10.1017/gmh.2017.16 · Cited by 50
“…that higher scores on the IDSS-G would be associated with increasing age (Jorm, 2000; Kessler et al. 2003; Bromet et al. 2011); female gender (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999; Bromet et al. 2011); greater impairments in functioning (Ormel et al. 2008; Kessler & Bromet, 2013), and suicidal…”
Background
Just Swap Out of Negative Vibes? Rumination and Inhibition Deficits in Major Depressive Disorder: Data from Event-Related Potentials Studies
Monnart, A., Kornreich, C., Verbanck, P., & Campanella, S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01019 · Cited by 25
“…vulnerability for the development and maintenance of depression, to higher levels of depressive symptoms, to longer and more severe episodes and might even be a mediator for the gender difference in depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999, 2007, 2008; Spasojević and Alloy, 2001).”
Background
Exploring Sex Differences in Worry with A Cognitive Vulnerability Model
Zalta, A. K., & Chambless, D. L. (2008) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00459.x · Cited by 22
“In fact, many of the aforementioned risk factors have been associated with depression, including mastery (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Pearlin et al., 1981), stress (D’Angelo & Wierzbicki, 2003; Morrison & O’Connor, 2005), and task-oriented coping (Cohan et al.”
Background

Authors: Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1999
Volume: 77
Issue: 5
Pages: 1061-1072
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061
OpenAlex: W2083186275
Cited by: 1,543
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 28.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH51817, R01MH051817)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords: gender differences, depressive symptoms, rumination, chronic strain, sense of mastery, mediation, reciprocal effects, coping
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, California, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interview, Psychological, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Negativism, Population Surveillance, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Sex Distribution

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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.

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