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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Abstract
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
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“Studies suggest that women may be more likely to experience many risk factors that increase—or indicate the presence of—thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, including major depression (i.e., females are approximately twice as likely as males to suffer from Major Depression; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999).”
From The interpersonal theory of suicide. (2010) · cites this paper as Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999
In the citing paper
“Mastery, a person’s perception of the degree of control they have in their lives, was measured using Pearlin’s 7-item Mastery Scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84).”
From Longitudinal impacts of an online safety and health intervention for women experiencing intimate partner violence: randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [50]
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Cites
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“This gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to emerge in early adolescence and then remains throughout the adult life span ( Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).”
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“In turn, a number of laboratory and field studies have shown that people who engage in rumination when distressed show longer and more severe periods of depressive symptoms and are more likely to develop full depressive disorders than those who do not engage in rumination (Alloy & Abramson, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morr…”
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Birditt, K. S., & Fingerman, K. L. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.4.p237 · Cited by 271
“In addition, as expected, with the exception of the middleaged and oldest-old adults, women reported that they experienced emotion for a longer duration than men (Fischer & Manstead, 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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Deyo, M., Wilson, K. A., Ong, J., & Koopman, C. (2009) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2009.06.005 · Cited by 265
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The Consequences of Dysphoric Rumination
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“5 years later (Just & Alloy, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Spasojevic & Alloy, 2001), and more inclined to have severe depressive symptoms (Just & Alloy, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000), than individuals without such a style.”
InfluentialApplying Self-Compassion in Sport: An Intervention With Women Athletes
Mosewich, A. D., Crocker, P. R. E., Kowalski, K. C., & DeLongis, A. (2013) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.35.5.514 · Cited by 270
An exploration of shame, social rank and rumination in relation to depression
Cheung, M., Gilbert, P., & Irons, C. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00206-x · Cited by 228
“There are a number of reasons for this, but one is that women may ruminate on their depression more than men do (Butler & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1994; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundKeyes, K. M., & Platt, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13864 · Cited by 253
Characteristics, correlates, and outcomes of childhood and adolescent depressive disorders
Rao, U., & Chen, L.-A. (2009) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2009.11.1/urao · Cited by 252
“One model suggests that females are more prone to exhibit a cognitive style characterized by negative self-evaluation and rumination.(82,83) Gender differences in brain function have also been postulated as one potential reason for the symptom variability.”
Excessive reassurance seeking, depression, and interpersonal rejection: A meta-analytic review.
Starr, L. R., & Davila, J. (2008) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013866 · Cited by 251
Sex differences in the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system and its regulation by stress
Bangasser, D. A., Wiersielis, K., & Khantsis, S. (2015) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2015.11.021 · Cited by 278
“Additionally, ruminations, which are associated with high arousal states (Pedersen et al., 2011; Thomsen et al., 2003), are more common in depressed women than men (Mezo and Baker, 2012; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundStressful life events, anxiety sensitivity, and internalizing symptoms in adolescents.
McLaughlin, K. A., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016499 · Cited by 245
The anatomy of pain and suffering in the brain and its clinical implications
Ridder, D. D., Adhia, D. B., & Vanneste, S. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.08.013 · Cited by 298
Gender differences in bipolar disorder: age of onset, course, comorbidity, and symptom presentation
Kawa, I., Carter, J. D., Joyce, P. R., Doughty, C. J., Frampton, C. M., Wells, J. E., Walsh, A. E. S., & Olds, R. J. (2005) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2004.00180.x · Cited by 231
Can’t Quite Commit: Rumination and Uncertainty
Ward, A., Lyubomirsky, S., Sousa, L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202238375 · Cited by 243
“For example, a large longitudinal study of more than 1,100 community-based participants showed that those with a more ruminative response style experienced more protracted periods of depressive symptoms and were more prone to develop major depressive disorder (NolenHoeksema, 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationReviewing the Assumptions About Men’s Mental Health: An Exploration of the Gender Binary
Smith, D. T., Mouzon, D. M., & Elliott, M. (2018) · American Journal of Men's Health · doi:10.1177/1557988316630953 · Cited by 243
“…often employed by women and frequently measured by behaviors such as rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999) and worry (Hong, 2007; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), is associated with higher psychological distress than problem-focused coping (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978; Watson & Sinha,…”
BackgroundA systematic review of the relationship between rumination and suicidality
Morrison, R., & O'Connor, R. C. (2008) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1521/suli.2008.38.5.523 · Cited by 231
“Previous research has highlighted sex differences in rumination, with females being more likely to have a ruminative response style (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson & Grayson, 1999).”
BackgroundRumination and Worry in Nonclinical Adolescents
Muris, P., Roelofs, J., Meesters, C., & Boomsma, P. (2004) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/b:cotr.0000045563.66060.3e · Cited by 230
“…in the Introduction, there is indeed evidence to suggest that girls display higher levels of psychopathological symptoms precisely because they show greater cognitive vulnerability, especially when confronted with stressful life events (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; NolenHoeksema & Girgus, 1994).”
InfluentialRuscio, A. M., Gentes, E. L., Jones, J. D., Hallion, L. S., Coleman, E. S., & Swendsen, J. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000025 · Cited by 228
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Curry, J. F., Silva, S. G., Rohde, P., Ginsburg, G. S., Kratochvil, C. J., Simons, A. D., Kirchner, J., MAY, D. E., Kennard, B. D., Mayes, T. L., et al. (2010) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.150 · Cited by 232
“Factors implicated as potential causes of higher depression rates among postpubertal women include sex steroids,(38) long-term environmental stressors, low perceived mastery, and ruminative response style.(39) Further research should investigate whether more frequent MDD recurrence among young women is confirmed and,…”
BackgroundGender differences in adolescent depression: do symptoms differ for boys and girls?
Bennett, D., Ambrosini, P., Kudes, D., Metz, C., & Rabinovich, H. (2005) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.05.020 · Cited by 228
“A potential gender difference in concentration problems is not surprising given that rumination is more common among females, is related to increased depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), and has been related to increased concentration problems (Lyubomirsky et al.”
BackgroundA meta-analysis of correlations between depression and first person singular pronoun use
Edwards, T., & Holtzman, N. S. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.02.005 · Cited by 224
Rosenfield, S., & Mouzon, D. M. (2012) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_14 · Cited by 592
Oldehinkel, A. J., & Bouma, E. M. C. (2011) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.10.013 · Cited by 225
Lyubomirsky, S., Layous, K., Chancellor, J., & Nelson, S. K. (2015) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112733 · Cited by 222
“…al. 2002, Lam et al. 2003, Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema 1995, Lyubomirsky et al. 1999, Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis 1999, Nolen-Hoeksema & Jackson 2001, Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999, Robinson & Alloy 2003, Spasojevic & Alloy 2001), and predicts depression above and beyond these negative cognitive styles…”
BackgroundInfluentialGender differences in Parkinson’s disease: A clinical perspective
Georgiev, D., Hamberg, K., Hariz, M., Forsgren, L., & Hariz, G.-M. (2017) · Acta Neurologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/ane.12796 · Cited by 220
Perfectionism Cognitions, Rumination, and Psychological Distress
Flett, G. L., Madorsky, D., Hewitt, P. L., & Heisel, M. J. (2002) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/a:1015128904007 · Cited by 209
“Future research must be sensitive to possible gender differences in the associations among perfectionism, rumination, and distress, given the extensive gender differences in rumination that have been identified by Nolen-Hoeksema and her colleagues, and their apparent role in the gender difference in depression (see No…”
BackgroundDoing Gender in the Bedroom: Investing in Gender Norms and the Sexual Experience
Sanchez, D., Crocker, J., & Boike, K. R. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205277333 · Cited by 218
Scott, K. M., Wells, J. E., Angermeyer, M., Brugha, T. S., Bromet, E. J., Demyttenaere, K., de Girolamo, G., Gureje, O., Haro, J. M., Jin, R., et al. (2009) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291709991942 · Cited by 257
“Nonetheless, we did find that the protective pattern associated with marriage against depression was stronger for men, which could be consistent with a gender role interpretation, such that women’s marital roles are less satisfying or involve more chronic strain than men’s (Gove & Tudor, 1973; Wu & DeMaris, 1996 ; Nol…”
ResultFrailty and Mortality Among Chinese at Advanced Ages
Gu, D., Dupre, M. E., Sautter, J. M., Zhu, H., Liu, Y., & Yi, Z. (2009) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbn009 · Cited by 223
Microbial Endocrinology: The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Health and Disease
Lyte, M., & Cryan, J. F. (2014) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4 · Cited by 240
Lengua, L. J., & Stormshak, E. A. (2000) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/a:1011096604861 · Cited by 209
“Some studies have suggested that coping strategies endorsed more often by females, such as use of social support, emotion-focused coping, and rumination, may be related to higher levels of depression seen in women (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, 1994; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
BackgroundGender Differences in the Relationship between Emotional Regulation and Depressive Symptoms
Thayer, J. F., Rossy, L. A., Ruiz‐Padial, E., & Johnsen, B. H. (2003) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1023922618287 · Cited by 207
“Attention to emotions by this definition has some relationship to ruminative coping as defined by Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (1999) .”
BackgroundInfluentialIntrusive versus deliberate rumination in posttraumatic growth across US and Japanese samples.
Taku, K., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2009) · Anxiety, Stress, & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615800802317841 · Cited by 208
McIntyre, L., Williams, J. V. A., Lavorato, D. H., & Patten, S. B. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.11.029 · Cited by 197
White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-006-9005-0 · Cited by 207
“Add to this cycle the link between self-focused attention and negative affect (Langer, 1989, 1992; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999; Pyszczynski & Greenberg, 1987), and the drive to evaluate ourselves can put us on the road to chronic dissatisfaction.”
BackgroundSex differences in antidepressant efficacy
LeGates, T. A., Kvarta, M. D., & Thompson, S. M. (2018) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0156-z · Cited by 242
Hankin, B. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410902976288 · Cited by 203
“Rumination, as a main effect, predicts future elevations of depressive symptoms (eg, Hankin, 2008b ; see review by Abela & Hankin, 2008 ), whereas not much support has been obtained for a Rumination × Stress interaction (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larsen, & Grayson, 1999 ; Sarin, Abela, & Auerbach, 2005 ).”
BackgroundTuran, B., Smith, W., Cohen, M. H., Wilson, T., Adimora, A., Merenstein, D., Adedimeji, A., Wentz, E. L., Foster, A., Metsch, L., et al. (2016) · Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0000000000000948 · Cited by 202
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O’Connor, R. C., & Noyce, R. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.01.007 · Cited by 208
“In an attempt to specify the active types of rumination, Treynor, Gonzalez, and Nolen-Hoeksema (2003) performed secondary analyses of data from Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, and Grayson (1999) and identified two distinct aspects of rumination which explained the relationship between rumination and…”
Method(2002) · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.17.1.116 · Cited by 199
“Details of the sampling procedures are given in Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, and Grayson (1999) .”
MethodSelf-citationGender Differences in Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression and Behavior Problems in Adolescents
Calvete, E., & Cardeñoso, O. (2005) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-005-1826-y · Cited by 198
“Early research emphasized macrosocial risk factors for depression, such as poverty, low educational status, poorer employment opportunities, and lack of control over decision making, and suggested that they are unequally distributed between sexes in several cultures ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
BackgroundCoping and experiential avoidance: Unique or overlapping constructs?
Karekla, M., & Panayiotou, G. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.10.002 · Cited by 196
The Masculine Depression Scale: Development and psychometric evaluation.
Magovčević, M., & Addis, M. E. (2008) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/1524-9220.9.3.117 · Cited by 216
Chevarley, F. M., Thierry, J., Gill, C., Ryerson, A., & Nosek, M. (2006) · Women's health issues · doi:10.1016/j.whi.2006.10.002 · Cited by 192
Are We Medicalizing Women’s Misery? A Critical Review of Women’s Higher Rates of Reported Depression
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“…with adolescent girls and adult women being more likely to show ruminative tendencies than adolescent boys or men (nolen-Hoeksema and girgus, 1994; nolen-Hoeksema, larson, and grayson, 1999), a gender difference that has been reported to emerge by age 13 (Jose and Brown, 2008). in a similar…”
BackgroundKramer, M. D., Krueger, R. F., & Hicks, B. M. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291707001572 · Cited by 190
“Rumination is another risk factor that exhibits a reliable gender difference (NolenHoeksema & Jackson, 2001) and is associated with anxiety as well as depression symptoms (NolenHoeksema, 2000) and partially accounts for women’s greater depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991 ; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999).”
BackgroundCortisol Responses to Daily Events in Major Depressive Disorder
Peeters, F. P. M. L., Nicolson, N. A., & Berkhof, J. H. (2003) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000088594.17747.2e · Cited by 184
“It is possible that additional variables such as social support (48), cognitive processes (eg, rumination) (49), modulatory effects of gonadal steroids (35), and behavioral responses (50) contribute to the observed gender difference in cortisol reactivity in the depressed group.”
BackgroundWells, A., Fisher, P., Myers, S., Wheatley, J., Patel, T., & Brewin, C. R. (2009) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9178-2 · Cited by 189
“Items are scored on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always), and overall scores range from 22 to 88. It has high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.88 to 0.92 (see Luminet 2004, for review), and a test-retest correlation of 0.67 over 12 months ( Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1…”
MethodInfluentialAffective reactivity to daily stressors is associated with elevated inflammation
Sin, N. L., Graham-Engeland, J. E., Ong, A. D., & Almeida, D. M. (2015) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000240 · Cited by 188
Rumination on Anger and Sadness in Adolescence: Fueling of Fury and Deepening of Despair
Peled, M., & Moretti, M. M. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410709336569 · Cited by 183
“g, Nolen-Hoeksema & Jackson, 2001 ; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
Sex Differences in the Heritability of Resilience
Boardman, J. D., Blalock, C. L., & Button, T. M. M. (2008) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/twin.11.1.12 · Cited by 185
“Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (1999) also propose that women experience more chronic strains, often have a weaker sense of mastery than men, and tend to ruminate over problems.”
BackgroundGender differences in personality and earnings: Evidence from Russia
Semykina, A., & Linz, S. J. (2006) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2006.05.004 · Cited by 164
Sex differences in neural responses to stress and alcohol context cues
Seo, D., Jia, Z., Lacadie, C., Tsou, K. A., Bergquist, K. L., & Sinha, R. (2010) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.21165 · Cited by 206
Motives to drink as mediators between childhood sexual assault and alcohol problems in adult women
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“The interviews were designed to investigate a number of topics, of which only a few are reported here (for further information, see Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDepressive Rumination and Co-Morbidity: Evidence for Brooding as a Transdiagnostic Process
Watkins, E. R. (2009) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-009-0098-9 · Cited by 182
The Merits of Using Longitudinal Mediation
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Dampening of positive affect prospectively predicts depressive symptoms in non-clinical samples
Raes, F., Smets, J., Nelis, S., & Schoofs, H. (2011) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.555474 · Cited by 183
“The RRS (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999) assesses ruminative responses to depressed mood.”
BackgroundKidd, S. A., Henrich, C. C., Brookmeyer, K. A., Davidson, L., King, R. A., & Shahar, G. (2006) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1521/suli.2006.36.4.386 · Cited by 189
The link between emotional competence and well-being: a longitudinal study
Ciarrochi, J., & Scott, G. (2006) · British Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1080/03069880600583287 · Cited by 198
“Longitudinal studies have established that people who engage in more rumination have higher levels of depressive symptoms over time and perceive themselves to be receiving less social support, even when controlling for their baseline levels of depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 1999 ; Nolen-Hoeksema et al ,…”
BackgroundResultAgency and communion attributes in adults’ spontaneous self-representations
Diehl, M., Owen, S. K., & Youngblade, L. M. (2003) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/01650250344000226 · Cited by 198
Assessing the relationship between rumination and cortisol: a review
Zoccola, P. M., & Dickerson, S. S. (2012) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.03.007 · Cited by 178
“Depression Sensitivity; RSQ = Responses Style Questionnaire [68]; RRS = Ruminative Responses Scale [69].”
BackgroundGender Differences in Self-Compassion: Examining the Role of Gender Role Orientation
Yarnell, L. M., Neff, K. D., Davidson, O., & Mullarkey, M. C. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-018-1066-1 · Cited by 196
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Pasupathi, M. (2003) · Memory · doi:10.1080/741938212 · Cited by 168
Sex and Gender Differences in Central Nervous System-Related Disorders
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“[37] S.”
Relations between social and emotional competence and mental health: a construct validation study
Ciarrochi, J., Scott, G., Deane, F. P., & Heaven, P. C. L. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(03)00043-6 · Cited by 169
“Longitudinal studies have established that people who engage in more rumination have higher levels of depressive symptoms over time and perceive themselves to be receiving less social support, even when controlling for their baseline levels of depressive symptoms (NolenHoeksema & Davis, 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 19…”
Clancy, F., Prestwich, A., Caperon, L., Tsipa, A., & O’Connor, D. B. (2020) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2019.1700819 · Cited by 165
Response Styles Theory: Downward Extension to Children
Ziegert, D. I., & Kistner, J. A. (2002) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3103_04 · Cited by 156
Relational spirituality and depression in adolescent girls
Desrosiers, A., & Miller, L. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20409 · Cited by 148
Regional brain activity in women grieving a romantic relationship breakup
Najib, A., Lorberbaum, J. P., Kose, S., Bohning, D. E., & George, M. S. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2245 · Cited by 161
The CREB1-BDNF-NTRK2 Pathway in Depression: Multiple Gene-Cognition-Environment Interactions
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Raes, F., & Hermans, D. (2008) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20447 · Cited by 170
“This may, as such, limit to some extent the generalizability of the present findings to men, especially given the fact that women tend to ruminate more than men.([27]) Further research should examine to what extent the relationships reported in this study generalize to a more representative sample, which is not predom…”
ResultRosenfield, S., Lennon, M., & White, H. (2005) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/002214650504600402 · Cited by 157
“Beginning in adolescence, females have lower self-esteem, greater emotional reliance and empathy, and a sense of fewer options in relationships than males (Josephs, Markus, and Tafarodi 1992; Lennon and Rosenf ield 1995; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, and Grayson 1999; Rosenfield et al. 2000).”
BackgroundUrbán, R., Kun, B., Farkas, J., Paksi, B., Kökönyei, G., Unoka, Z., Felvinczi, K., Oláh, A., & Demetrovics, Z. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.01.027 · Cited by 155
“Our results are consistent with previous reports regarding gender difference in somatization (Wool and Barsky, 1994), depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), symptoms of anxiety (Pigott, 1999; McLean et al.”
ResultBond, L. M., Toumbourou, J. W., Thomas, L., Catalano, R. F., & Patton, G. C. (2005) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-005-3407-2 · Cited by 144
“For example, differences between gender have been explained in terms of coping styles, particularly emotion-focused coping styles (Windle & Windle, 1996), which may lead to focusing on or ruminating about negative events (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), sex role identity (Hill & Lynch, 1983), and gender differences in a…”
BackgroundDíaz, N. S. R., Fernández‐Berrocal, P., & Extremera, N. (2007) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930600845846 · Cited by 126
“Several longitudinal and experimental studies have shown that people who ruminate in response to stress are at higher risk of developing depressive symptoms and depressive disorders over time (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
BackgroundA Prospective Study of Rumination and Depression in Early Adolescence
Broderick, P. C., & Korteland, C. (2004) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1359104504043920 · Cited by 151
Religious Identities and Religious Institutions
Ammerman, N. T. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807961.016 · Cited by 227
Anxiety and depression 3 years following stroke: Demographic, clinical, and psychological predictors
Morrison, V., Pollard, B., Johnston, M., & MacWalter, R. (2005) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.02.019 · Cited by 154
“Some explanation for this may be found in studies that have identified gender differences in emotional regulation [42] or in the use of ruminative coping styles [43,44]; however, our sample size requires that these post hoc analyses are interpreted with caution.”
Key, B. L., Campbell, T. S., Bacon, S. L., & Gerin, W. (2008) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9152-9 · Cited by 149
Sartore, G., Kelly, B. J., Stain, H. J., Albrecht, G. A., & Higginbotham, N. H. (2008) · Rural and Remote Health · doi:10.22605/rrh950 · Cited by 137
Not so innocent: Does seeing one's own capability for wrongdoing predict forgiveness?
Exline, J. J., Baumeister, R. F., Zell, A. L., Kraft, A. J., & Witvliet, C. V. O. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.495 · Cited by 146
Sex differences in the time course of emotion.
Gard, M. G., & Kring, A. M. (2007) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.429 · Cited by 146
Harper, F. W. K., & Arias, I. (2004) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-004-0681-x · Cited by 131
“Although gender differences were not predicted, these findings are consistent with previous research that shows a greater prevalence of depression among women and greater anger and aggression in men (e.g., Eagly & Steffen, 1986; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
ResultRuminative Thoughts and Their Relation to Depression and Anxiety1
Harrington, J. A., & Blankenship, V. (2002) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00225.x · Cited by 146
Burkhouse, K. L., Jacobs, R. H., Peters, A. T., Ajilore, O., Watkins, E. R., & Langenecker, S. A. (2016) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-016-0486-4 · Cited by 151
Self-regulation, rumination, and vulnerability to depression in adolescent girls
Papadakis, A. A., PRINCE, R. P., Jones, N. P., & Strauman, T. J. (2006) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579406060408 · Cited by 136
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2010) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01017.x · Cited by 144
Hurd, N. M., Varner, F. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036438 · Cited by 162
Sex differences in stress reactivity in arousal and attention systems
Bangasser, D. A., Eck, S. R., & Sanchez, E. O. (2018) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0137-2 · Cited by 192
Examination of the Response Styles Theory in a Community Sample of Young Adolescents
Hilt, L. M., McLaughlin, K. A., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2010) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9384-3 · Cited by 165
“…to ruminate than men, and that this difference in rumination accounts, at least partially, for the gender difference in depressive symptoms (i.e., co-varying rumination scores results in a non-significant gender difference in depression scores; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999; Roberts et al. 1998).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAge and gender differences in negative affect—Is there a role for emotion regulation?
Thomsen, D. K., Mehlsen, M. Y., Viidik, A., Sommerlund, B., & Zachariae, R. H. (2005) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.12.001 · Cited by 142
Perfectionism and psychological distress: evidence of the mediating effects of rumination.
O'Connor, D. B., O'Connor, R. C., & Marshall, R. (2007) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.616 · Cited by 141
“This is in keeping with work conducted by Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (1999) who have argued that high ruminators are concerned with being able to control their environment, and as such, rumination may reflect attempts to gain control over disturbing circumstances in their life.”
ResultHankin, B. L. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410802359627 · Cited by 135
“Nolen-Hoeksema (eg, Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994 ; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ) and others (eg, Hankin & Abramson, 2001 ) clearly hypothesized that girls will exhibit greater rumination than boys and that rumination may explain why more girls exhibit more depressive and general internalizing symptoms.”
Association Between Stressful Life Events and Depression; Intersection of Race and Gender
Assari, S., & Lankarani, M. M. (2015) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-015-0160-5 · Cited by 156
Panayiotou, G., Leonidou, C., Constantinou, E., Hart, J., Rinehart, K. L., Sy, J. T., & Björgvinsson, Þ. (2014) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.09.006 · Cited by 147
On being aware and accepting: A one‐year longitudinal study into adolescent well‐being
Ciarrochi, J., Kashdan, T. B., Leeson, P., Heaven, P., & Jordan, C. (2011) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.09.003 · Cited by 135
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1999
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1061-1072
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2083186275
- Cited by
- 1,543
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 28.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH51817, R01MH051817)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive symptoms, rumination, chronic strain, sense of mastery, mediation, reciprocal effects, coping
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, California, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interview, Psychological, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Negativism, Population Surveillance, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Sex Distribution
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