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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Abstract
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
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“Studies suggest that women may be more likely to experience many risk factors that increase—or indicate the presence of—thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, including major depression (i.e., females are approximately twice as likely as males to suffer from Major Depression; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999).”
From The interpersonal theory of suicide. (2010) · cites this paper as Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999
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“Mastery, a person’s perception of the degree of control they have in their lives, was measured using Pearlin’s 7-item Mastery Scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84).”
From Longitudinal impacts of an online safety and health intervention for women experiencing intimate partner violence: randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [50]
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“These results are consistent with past findings that females tend to be more critical of themselves and tend to ruminate on their negative feelings more than males do (Leadbeater et al., 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“The cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between rumination and depressive symptoms in this sample were previously reported in Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (1999) .”
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“For example, heterosexual women are more likely to ruminate than heterosexual men (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), suggesting that lesbians might be more vulnerable to this cognitive risk factor than gay men.”
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“P, BDI, MAACL, IES Higher levels of trait RT associated with higher levels of negative mood 12 hr after failure in the abstract but not the concrete writing condition Watkins & Brown (2002) Within subject, RUM vs. DIS counterbalanced; 14 MDD, 14 controls Random number generation task For count score (index of less ran…”
BackgroundInfluentialGender differences in stress and coping styles
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“In addition to higher rates of affective disorders that meet full diagnostic criteria, subclinical anxiety and depression symptoms are also more common in women (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Hankin, 2009).”
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“However, the individual's ruminative thoughts are also reinforced, and rumination is a risk factor for depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999).”
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“90) with total scores on the full Rumination Scale in an adult sample (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“Longitudinal studies of naturally occurring depressed moods show that people who respond to those moods with rumination report more severe and longer periods of depressed mood than people who use pleasant activities to manage their moods, even after controlling for the initial severity of the mood (Nolen-Hoeksema & La…”
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“Therefore, it is possible that depressive rumination might be more strongly associated with the development of internalizing conditions (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), whereas angry rumination might be more strongly linked to the development of externalizing problems (Peled & Moretti, 2007).”
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“in pleasant or distracting activities (Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993) and a sense of mastery over one’s life ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
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“Email: nolen@umich.edu 37 In turn, these gender differences in rumination appear to mediate the observed gender differences in depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994).”
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“This gender difference has been interpreted in light of the fact that women tend to have a more ruminative coping style than men ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
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“Previous research with adults has shown that rumination contributes to the maintenance or intensification of depressive symptoms and that women are more likely to ruminate than men (Butler & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1994; Katz & Bertelson, 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Treynor et al., 2003).”
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“However, other studies have demonstrated that depressive symptoms are associated with increases in rumination over time (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999, 2007).”
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BackgroundPhysiological concomitants of perseverative cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
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“Sex differences are critical as perseverative cognition has been shown to be more prevalent in women (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999) and women are characterized by a more sustained physiological reactivity to emotional stressors (Ottaviani et al.”
InfluentialSex differences in anxiety and depression: circuits and mechanisms
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“Although few studies have investigated this pathway, one longitudinal study of community adults revealed that depressive symptoms predicted increased rumination 1 year later after controlling for initial levels of rumination ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
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“These results may be related to the fact that females tend to be more self-critical and have a more ruminative coping style than males (Leadbeater, Kuperminc, Blatt, & Hertzog, 1999 ; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ), meaning that they are less emotionally healthy when dealing with both themselves and others.”
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“For instance, whereas autism is more common in males (4:1 male to female ratio; Fombonne 2005), depression and anxiety are more prevalent in females (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999).”
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“Women may experience more stress because they are more likely to ruminate and are more burdened by the problems of others than men (Antonucci, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“Prospectively, depressed persons who engage in self-focused rumination show longer and more severe periods of depression than those who do not ruminate (80).”
BackgroundSex differences in emotional and physiological responses to the Trier Social Stress Test
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“, suppression, reappraisal, rumination) during and following episodes of acute stress (Craske, 2003; Gross, 2002; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999) may also explain sex differences in the prevalence of mood and anxiety pathology.”
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“When developing intervention components, consideration should be given to findings that females tend to be more internally focused and cope using rumination strategies, whereas males tend to be more externally focused (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ; Sethi & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1997 ).”
BackgroundRood, L., Roelofs, J., Bögels, S. M., Nolen–Hoeksema, S., & Schouten, E. G. W. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.001 · Cited by 404
Self-citationSex Differences in Severe Pulmonary Emphysema
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“Rumination is associated with increased depression, is more common in women, and among women is inversely related to age (57).”
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“Girls are expected to be more emotionally sensitive [47], suffer more from stressors which involve significant others such as the death of friends or relatives [48], experience more restricted gender roles and body dissatisfaction [49, 50], ruminate more as a coping strategy [51], experience more family violence, abus…”
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“…rumination have been found to interact with higher levels of stress to predict higher levels of depressive symptoms concurrently in adult samples (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999) and prospectively in samples of individuals in middle to late adolescence (Abela, Parkinson, Mineka, Yao, & Zhu, 2010;…”
Miranda, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.07.015 · Cited by 344
“A community sample of 1324 adults between the ages of 24 and 82 years from the San Francisco Bay Area of California were interviewed between 1994 and 1996, as part of a study to examine gender differences in depression, and 1134 of these individuals (607 female, 527 male) between the ages of 25 and 82 (M ¼ 47.8, SD ¼…”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citationAnderson, A. J., Kaplan, S. A., & Vega, R. P. (2015) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2014.966086 · Cited by 344
Shih, J. H., Eberhart, N. K., Hammen, C., & Brennan, P. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3501_9 · Cited by 343
“With respect to chronic stress exposure, a study of adults found that women experience more chronic stress than men ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ), but it is unclear whether these results extend to adolescents.”
BackgroundGender Differences in Domain-Specific Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis
Gentile, B., Grabe, S., Dolan‐Pascoe, B., Twenge, J. M., Wells, B. E., & Maitino, A. (2009) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013689 · Cited by 343
Gender Differences in Subjective Well-Being: Comparing Societies with Respect to Gender Equality
Tesch‐Römer, C., Motel-Klingebiel, A., & Tomasik, M. J. (2007) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-007-9133-3 · Cited by 332
The Impact of Microbiota on Brain and Behavior: Mechanisms & Therapeutic Potential
Borre, Y. E., Moloney, R. D., Clarke, G., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2014) · Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0897-4_17 · Cited by 329
Benefits of Expressive Writing in Lowering Rumination and Depressive Symptoms
Gortner, E.-M., Rude, S. S., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2006) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.01.004 · Cited by 328
Decramer, M., Rennard, S. I., Troosters, T., Mapel, D. W., Giardino, N. D., Mannino, D. M., Wouters, E. F. �., Sethi, S., & Cooper, C. B. (2008) · COPD Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease · doi:10.1080/15412550802237531 · Cited by 296
“Women tend to ruminate more than men and, among women, rumination is inversely related to age (147).”
BackgroundSex differences in depression and anxiety disorders: Potential biological determinants
Altemus, M. M. (2006) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.031 · Cited by 326
“For example, an intriguing example of sex differences in psychopathology is the tendency of women to ruminate more than men (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundA habit-goal framework of depressive rumination.
Watkins, E. R., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0035540 · Cited by 374
“This gender effect is consistent with the commonly found gender difference in the expression of rumination, with rumination more frequent in girls and women than boys and men (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), with this gender difference emerging in early adolescence (ages 12 to 13; Jose & Brown, 2008).”
ResultSelf-citationThe Posttraumatic Growth Model: Sociocultural Considerations
Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118270028.ch1 · Cited by 341
Chaplin, T. M., Hong, K., Bergquist, K. L., & Sinha, R. (2008) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00679.x · Cited by 326
“Women may also focus cognitively on sadness/anxiety more than men—-for example, women are more likely to ruminate on sad and anxious emotions than men whereas men are more likely to distract attention away from these emotional states (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundSex differences in the use of coping strategies: predictors of anxiety and depressive symptoms
Kelly, M. M., Tyrka, A. R., Price, L. H., & Carpenter, L. L. (2007) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20341 · Cited by 350
“More specifically, robust research findings suggest that sex differences in the use of coping styles in response to stress are salient and contributing factors in the pathogenesis of anxiety and depression in women [Barlow, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999].”
BackgroundBody Objectification and Depression in Adolescents: The Role of Gender, Shame, and Rumination
Grabe, S., Hyde, J. S., & Lindberg, S. M. (2007) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00350.x · Cited by 305
“The three studies to date that we are aware of, conducted by Nolen-Hoeksema and colleagues (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema & Jackson, 2001), have suggested that adult women tend to ruminate more than men due to greater levels of chronic gender role strain, perceived lack of control o…”
BackgroundGender differences in depression: the role of personality factors
Goodwin, R. D., & Gotlib, I. H. (2004) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2003.12.024 · Cited by 281
“Specifically, higher levels of neuroticism have been found to be associated both with increased risk of depression (Ormel et al., 2001) and with increased odds of psychiatric comorbidity among individuals with anxiety and depressive disorders (Widiger and Trull, 1992; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
BackgroundThe reality and evolutionary significance of human psychological sex differences
Archer, J. (2019) · Biological Reviews · doi:10.1111/brv.12507 · Cited by 291
Coping, distress, and well-being in mothers of children with autism
Benson, P. R. (2009) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.09.008 · Cited by 268
Rumination, Depression, and Alcohol Use: Tests of Gender Differences
Nolen–Hoeksema, S., & Harrell, Z. A. T. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcop.16.4.391.52526 · Cited by 264
Self-citationPersonality and Risk of Physical Illness
Smith, T. W., & MacKenzie, J. J. (2006) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095257 · Cited by 296
“There may be similar sex differences in the nature or determinants of these risk factors (Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999), the magnitude of their association with health, or in underlying mechanisms.”
BackgroundInsomnia Symptoms in Older Adults: Associated Factors and Gender Differences
Jaussent, I., Dauvilliers, Y., Ancelin, M.-L., Dartigues, J.-F., Tavernier, B., Touchon, J., Ritchie, K., & Besset, A. (2011) · The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e3181e049b6 · Cited by 286
Elwood, L. S., Hahn, K. S., Olatunji, B. O., & Williams, N. L. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.10.002 · Cited by 284
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1999
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1061-1072
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2083186275
- Cited by
- 1,543
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 28.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH51817, R01MH051817)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive symptoms, rumination, chronic strain, sense of mastery, mediation, reciprocal effects, coping
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, California, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interview, Psychological, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Negativism, Population Surveillance, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Sex Distribution
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