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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Abstract
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
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“Studies suggest that women may be more likely to experience many risk factors that increase—or indicate the presence of—thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, including major depression (i.e., females are approximately twice as likely as males to suffer from Major Depression; Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999).”
From The interpersonal theory of suicide. (2010) · cites this paper as Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999
In the citing paper
“Mastery, a person’s perception of the degree of control they have in their lives, was measured using Pearlin’s 7-item Mastery Scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84).”
From Longitudinal impacts of an online safety and health intervention for women experiencing intimate partner violence: randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as [50]
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“This gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to emerge in early adolescence and then remains throughout the adult life span ( Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).”
BackgroundRuminative coping with depressed mood following loss.
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“In turn, a number of laboratory and field studies have shown that people who engage in rumination when distressed show longer and more severe periods of depressive symptoms and are more likely to develop full depressive disorders than those who do not engage in rumination (Alloy & Abramson, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morr…”
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“Of course, the fact that the structural relations between self-esteem, rumination, and depression replicate across genders does not mean that men and women do not differ in their average level of self-esteem, rumination, and depression; in fact, men did score higher in selfesteem and lower in rumination and depression…”
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“Specifically, women may be more likely to report depressive symptoms compared to men (see Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999).”
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“These findings reflect the gender imbalance in rates of depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999) and the deleterious effects of personal (Essau, 2007; Lewinsohn et al.”
BackgroundCONTRIBUTION OF SELF-COMPASSION TO COMPETENCE AND MENTAL HEALTH IN SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS
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“In particular, girls’ propensity to ruminate and engage in self-focused coping strategies has been repeatedly demonstrated and may increase their susceptibility to internalizing problems (Rose and Rudolph 2006; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999 ).”
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“…both cocaine-dependent and non-dependent females report significantly higher anxiety, stress, and negative mood during distress compared with males, (Chaplin et al, 2008; Fox et al, 2008b) and experience negative emotions at a greater frequency and intensity than males (Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1999).”
BackgroundPaying attention to distress: What's wrong with rumination?
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“Consistent with this notion, previous evidence indicates that females have a greater tendency to ruminate than males (Johnson and Whisman, 2013), which could increase their risk for depression and anxiety disorders relative to that of males (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“Other research suggests that potential correlates of affective interference, such as rumination, are subject to gender differences (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
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“This is problematic because many researchers agree that attributes related to the quality of the social role may be an important determinant of the psychological impact of the role on an individual ( Baruch & Barnett, 1986; Helson, Elliott, & Leigh, 1990).”
BackgroundInfluentialSex Differences in the Association Between Depression, Anxiety, and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Demmer, R. T., Gelb, S., Suglia, S. F., Keyes, K. M., Aiello, A. E., Colombo, P. C., Galea, S., Uddin, M., Koenen, K. C., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2015) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000169 · Cited by 104
“For example, men tend to distract themselves from mood by becoming aggressive and participating in activities, whereas women are more likely to ruminate, decrease physical activity, and eat more (27,29,45,46).”
BackgroundProfiles and Correlates of Relational Aggression in Young Adults’ Romantic Relationships
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“We know that women have a rate of depression 2 times that of men in the general population (38) and in the cardiac population (39), but it is intriguing why more depressed women but fewer depressed men get referred to CR.”
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“In one study, gender differences in rumination, stress, and mastery mediated gender differences in depressive symptoms (115).”
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“This may be explained by the fact that females ruminate on negative feelings more than males (41, 42).”
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“NolenHoeksema and her colleagues (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1993, 1999) have shown that an element of this process is due to a ruminative style of thinking, especially about one’s depression.”
BackgroundResultCoping through avoidance may explain gender disparities in anxiety
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“If these sex differences occur in humans, they may explain the sex bias in the rates of depression, as well as the prevalence of certain hyperarousal symptoms in depressed women (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Plante et al., 2012).”
BackgroundTrauma and Cumulative Adversity in Women of a Disadvantaged Social Location.
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The Psychology of Creative Writing
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“of these strategies is rumination, which supposedly leads to chronic strain and has been theoretically introduced as a typical “female” phenomenon [49].”
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“These results build on prior research with predominantly White, middleclass, adult samples that has found that ruminative coping strategies partially account for gender differences in rates of depressive symptoms (e.g., Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999 ) and on more limited research with adolescents indicating girls are mo…”
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“The common risk factors for poorer outcomes on both positive and negative affect are stressful life events and being female, which is consistent with a large volume of literature that finds women to be at greater risk for depression ( Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999 ).”
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“Moreover, previous studies have reported that female participants tend to use more ruminative response than males (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Johnson and Whisman, 2013).”
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“Only females were included because women are more likely than men to suffer from depression and gender differences in behavioral and physiological responses to stress are theorized to contribute to this difference (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, and Grayson (1999) found that women who suffer from depression are more likely to engage in rumination, whereas men are more likely to distract themselves.”
BackgroundEffect of ruminations on the saliva cortisol response to a social stressor
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“Some people ruminate more than others and longitudinal studies show that a ruminative style is a stable individual difference variable (Nolen-Hoeksema and Davis, 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1993, 1999).”
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“However, under conditions of CRF hypersecretion, it could lead to hyperarousal, a negative state of being on edge that contributes to some symptoms of depression and PTSD and may be more prominent in women [93-96].”
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Cambron‐Mellott, M. J., Acitelli, L. K., & Pettit, J. W. (2009) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-009-9616-6 · Cited by 77
“Furthermore, gender differences in depression have consistently been partially accounted for by gender differences in rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus 1994; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialRichter, M., & Weber, R. O. (2013) · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40167-1_11 · Cited by 83
Health locus of control beliefs and socio-economic differences in self-rated health
Poortinga, W., Dunstan, F., & Fone, D. L. (2007) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.11.015 · Cited by 76
Ford-Gilboe, M., Varcoe, C., Scott-Storey, K., Perrin, N., Wuest, J., Wathen, C. N., Case, J., & Glass, N. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-8152-8 · Cited by 76
Yalcin-Siedentopf, N., Pichler, T., Welte, A.-S., Hoertnagl, C. M., Klasen, C. C., Kemmler, G., Siedentopf, C., & Hofer, A. (2020) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-020-01076-2 · Cited by 95
Williams, D. T., Cheadle, J. E., & Goosby, B. J. (2013) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x13501666 · Cited by 81
“Although gender differences in depression are complex (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999), some scholars suggest that the depression disparity between men and women is because of the unequal power and status in heterosexual relationships (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
InfluentialBoelen, P. A., Reijntjes, A., & Smid, G. E. (2016) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.004 · Cited by 76
Physical Disability and Depression: Clarifying Racial/Ethnic Contrasts
Brown, R. L., & Turner, R. (2010) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264309360573 · Cited by 80
“Mastery is measured using the seven-item scale developed by Pearlin and Schooler (1978). The scale is internally reliable, with an alpha of .”
MethodKim, K., Uchiyama, M., Liu, X., Shibui, K., Ohida, T., Ogihara, R., & Okawa, M. (2001) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-200105000-00013 · Cited by 70
Exploring the cognitive‐emotional pathways between adult attachment and ego‐resiliency
Caldwell, J. G., & Shaver, P. R. (2012) · Individual Differences Research · doi:10.65030/idr.10013 · Cited by 80
“Additionally, evidence suggests that both attachment anxiety (Caldwell, Shaver, Li, & Minzenberg, 2011; Shaver, Schachner, & Mikulincer, 2005) and rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999) are related to clinical symptoms of depression.”
Cambron‐Mellott, M. J., Acitelli, L. K., & Steinberg, L. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167209351593 · Cited by 78
Subtypes of Rumination in the Relationship Between Negative Life Events and Suicidal Ideation
Chan, S., Miranda, R., & Surrence, K. (2009) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811110902835015 · Cited by 81
“Previous research suggests that people ruminate in response to negative life events (Robinson & Alloy, 2003) and that rumination partially accounts for the relationship between stressful life events and the experience of negative affect (Moberly & Watkins, 2008b), and for the relationship between chronic strain and de…”
BackgroundAdaptación al castellano de un instrumento para evaluar el estilo rumiativo
Hervás, G. (2008) · Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica · doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.13.num.2.2008.4054 · Cited by 84
“…diversos estudios han mostrado que presenta una buena consistencia interna (a = 0,88 - 0.92; Just y Alloy, 1997; Nolan, Roberts y Gotlib, 1998; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Nolen-Hoeksema y Morrow, 1991; NolenHoeksema et al., 1994), así como una adecuada fiabilidad test-retest (0,80 en 5…”
BackgroundInfluentialDual-task attention deficits in dysphoric mood.
Rokke, P. D., Arnell, K. M., Koch, M. D., & Andrews, J. T. (2002) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.111.2.370 · Cited by 79
Brand, S., Colledge, F., Ludyga, S., Emmenegger, R., Kalak, N., Sadeghi Bahmani, D., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., Pühse, U., & Gerber, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00249 · Cited by 78
“Following Nolen-Hoeksema et al. (1999) and Shors et al. (2017), rumination is understood as the constant repetition of thoughts, often impairing more constructive and goal-oriented thoughts.”
Background5-HIAA as a Potential Biological Marker for Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders
Jayamohananan, H., Kumar, M. K. M., & Aneesh, T. P. (2019) · Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin · doi:10.15171/apb.2019.044 · Cited by 88
Balsamo, M., Carlucci, L., Sergi, M. R., Murdock, K. K., & Saggino, A. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140177 · Cited by 74
“Furthermore, some evidence suggests that females demonstrate higher cognitive vulnerability for depression [21] and that cognitive vulnerabilities are more strongly linked to depression for females when compared to males [22].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1999
- Volume
- 77
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1061-1072
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2083186275
- Cited by
- 1,543
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 28.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH51817, R01MH051817)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, depressive symptoms, rumination, chronic strain, sense of mastery, mediation, reciprocal effects, coping
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, California, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interview, Psychological, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Negativism, Population Surveillance, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Sex Distribution
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